Practice Exercises
2–1. Label the skeletal structures indicated in the figure.
(a) ______________________________ (d) ______________________________
(b) ______________________________ (e) ______________________________
(c) ______________________________
2–2. Label the skeletal structures indicated in the figure.
(a) ______________________________ (d) ______________________ vertebrae
(b) ______________________ vertebrae (e) ______________________ vertebrae
(c) ______________________ vertebrae (f) ______________________ vertebrae
2–3. Fill in the blanks.
(a) The pulmonary apparatus is made up of the _________________________ and the _________________________.
(b) The chest wall is made up of the ____________________, ____________________, ____________________, and ____________________.
(c) If the pulmonary apparatus were removed from the chest wall, it would collapse or expand [circle one]; in contrast, the chest wall would collapse or expand [circle one].
(d) The part of the pulmonary apparatus that attaches to the larynx is called the ____________________.
(e) Does a frog have a diaphragm? Yes or No [circle one]
2–4. Label the pulmonary structures indicated in the figure.
(a) ______________________________ (c) ______________________________
(b) ______________________________ (d) ______________________________
2–5. Label the muscles indicated in the figures.
(a) ______________________________ (e) ______________________________
(b) ______________________________ (f) ______________________________
(c) ______________________________ (g) ______________________________
(d) ______________________________ (h) ______________________________
2–6. Label the muscles indicated in the figures.
(a) ______________________________ (b) ______________________________
2–7. Label the muscles indicated in the figures.
(a) ______________________________ (e) ______________________________
(b) ______________________________ (f) ______________________________
(c) ______________________________ (g) ______________________________
(d) ______________________________ (h) ______________________________
2–8. Label the muscle and other structures indicated in the figures.
(a) ______________________________ (d) ______________________________
(b) ______________________________ (e) ______________________________
(c) ______________________________
2–9. Label the muscles indicated in the figures.
(a) ______________________________ (c) ______________________________
(b) ______________________________ (d) ______________________________
2–10. The muscles of the chest wall are listed below in the order that they are presented in the textbook. Place a check mark indicating whether they have potential to exert inspiratory and/or expiratory force on the breathing apparatus.
| Inspiratory | Expiratory | |
| Muscles of the Rib Cage Wall | ||
| Sternocleidomastoid | ||
| Scalenus anterior, medius, and posterior | ||
| Pectoralis major | ||
| Pectoralis minor | ||
| Subclavius | ||
| Serratus anterior | ||
| External intercostal | ||
| Internal intercostal (between ribs) | ||
| Internal intercostal (between costal cartilages) | ||
| Transversus thoracis | ||
| Latissimus dorsi | ||
| Serratus posterior superior | ||
| Serratus posterior inferior | ||
| Lateral iliocostalis cervicis | ||
| Lateral iliocostalis thoracis | ||
| Lateral iliocostalis lumborum | ||
| Levatores costarum | ||
| Quadratus lumborum | ||
| Subcostal | ||
| Muscle of the Diaphragm | ||
| Diaphragm | ||
| Muscles of the Abdominal Wall | ||
| Rectus abdominis | ||
| External oblique | ||
| Internal oblique | ||
| Transversus abdominis |
2–11. Fill in the blanks.
(a) What is the largest and most powerful inspiratory muscle? ________________________
(b) The pressure inside the lungs is called _________________________________ pressure.
(c) The abdomen can move itself outward by activation of its own muscles (abdominal muscles). True or False [circle one] Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
(d) Which of the following is/are true? [check all that apply]
_____ When the diaphragm contracts, it can lift the rib cage wall.
_____ When the diaphragm contracts, it can move the abdominal wall inward.
_____ When the diaphragm contracts, it can move the abdominal wall outward.
_____ When the diaphragm contracts, it does not move either the rib cage wall or abdominal wall.
(e) If the rib cage wall and abdominal wall move inward the same distance, which one will move more air out of the lungs? Rib cage wall or abdominal wall [circle one]
2–12. The amount of air within the pulmonary apparatus can be subdivided into four lung volumes and four lung capacities. Label them as they are shown in the figure.
(a) ______________________________ (e) ______________________________
(b) ______________________________ (f) ______________________________
(c) ______________________________ (g) ______________________________
(d) ______________________________ (h) ______________________________
2–13. The table below contains prediction equations for total lung capacity (TLC) and residual volume (RV) in liters (L) (from Quanjer et al., 1993).1 Ht = height (in meters)2; A= age (in years).
| TLC (L) | RV (L) | |
| Men | (7.99 x Ht) – 7.08 | (1.31 x Ht) + (0.022 x A) – 1.23 |
| Women | (6.60 x Ht) – 5.79 | (1.81 x Ht) + (0.016 x A) – 2.00 |
1Note that most prediction equations for lung volumes, including the ones given here, are based on data from both smokers and nonsmokers and people from different races and ethnic groups. Smoking and race/ethnicity (and other variables) can influence lung volumes. For example, if someone is a nonsmoker, the prediction equation above will probably overestimate RV.
2Conversion: 1 foot = 0.3048 meter
(a) Calculate the following:
TLC for a man who is 5 feet, 6 inches tall ______________________________________
TLC for a woman who is 5 feet, 6 inches tall ___________________________________
What does this indicate about sex differences in TLC?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
(b) Calculate the following:
RV for a man who is 5 feet, 6 inches tall and 25 years old _________________________
RV for a man who is 5 feet, 6 inches tall and 75 years old _________________________
What does this indicate about age differences in RV?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
(c) Calculate the following:
Your TLC _______________________________________________________________
Your RV ________________________________________________________________
What, then, is your vital capacity (VC)? _______________________________________
Would you expect your VC to increase or decrease as you get older? ________________
2–14. The figure below represents lung volume change. Match each letter in the figure with the appropriate item below. Assume that these pertain to the upright body position.
_____ End of an inspiration for resting tidal breathing
_____ End of an expiration for resting tidal breathing
_____ End of an inspiration for conversational speaking
_____ End of an inspiration for classical singing
_____ End of an expiration for vigorous laughing
_____ End of an inspiration for a vital capacity maneuver
_____ End of an expiration for a vital capacity maneuver
2–15. Use the volume-pressure functions in the diagram below (for upright body positions) to answer the following questions.
(a) What is the (approximate) maximum expiratory pressure that can be generated? _______
(b) What is the (approximate) maximum inspiratory pressure that can be generated? _______
(c) What is the relaxation pressure at 40% of the vital capacity? _______________________
(d) What is the (approximate) relaxation pressure at 80% of the vital capacity? ___________
2–16. Your relaxation (passive recoil) pressure is inspiratory or expiratory [circle one] at large lung volumes and inspiratory or expiratory [circle one] at small lung volumes.
2-17. Generate your own relaxation characteristic by doing the following. First take in a breath and release it. For a moment, you should feel no need to expire or inspire. That is the point where the Relaxation line crosses 0 cmH2O (atmospheric pressure). Now take in all the air you can, hold it (either by closing your larynx or by closing your mouth and plugging your nose), and then completely relax. That is the top point on the Relaxation line.
What do you feel?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
Now blow out all the air you can, hold it, and completely relax. That is the bottom point on the Relaxation line.
What do you feel?
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
2–18. The figure below represents alveolar pressure. Match each letter in the figure with the appropriate item below.
_____ Abrupt sniffing
_____ Conversing loudly in a noisy restaurant
_____ Relaxation at the end of a quiet breath
_____ Loud yelling
_____ Maximum expiratory effort near total lung capacity
_____ Maximum inspiratory effort near residual volume
_____ Conversing at usual loudness
2–19. The figure below represents the shapes that can be assumed by the chest wall (rib cage wall and abdominal wall) throughout the vital capacity.
Match each letter in the figure with the appropriate item below.
_____ Largest abdominal wall size
_____ Smallest abdominal wall size
_____ Largest rib cage wall size
_____ Smallest rib cage wall size
_____ Rib cage wall size and abdominal wall size when completely relaxed at end of a resting tidal expiration
2–20. The figure below represents a continuum of chest wall shapes. Match each letter in the figure with the appropriate item below. Assume that these pertain to the upright body position.
_____ Classical singing
_____ Running as fast as possible
_____ Conversational speaking
_____ After eating a large meal
_____ Pulling in the abdominal wall inward to look as thin as possible
_____ Pushing out the abdominal wall to look as fat as possible
_____ Resting tidal breathing
2–21. Complete the following items regarding the neural substrates of breathing.
(a) The motor supply for the diaphragm is called the ____________________ and comes from spinal segments ____________________.
(b) Nerves supplying the rib cage wall muscles are generally higher (closer to the head) than those supplying the abdominal wall muscles. True or False [circle one]
(c) A spinal cord injury (which cuts off communication between the brain and the spinal cord at and below the level of the injury) at the C6 level would impair function of [check all that apply] [Hint: See Table 2–2.]
_____ Nearly all of the rib cage wall muscles
_____ Some of the abdominal wall muscles
_____ The diaphragm
_____ All the abdominal wall muscles
(d) Someone with a C6 spinal cord injury (as described above) would have abnormal lung volume subdivisions. Which of the following would be true? [check all that apply]
_____ Abnormally small vital capacity (VC)
_____ Abnormally small inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
_____ No expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
_____ Abnormally small total lung capacity (TLC)
(e) Could someone with a C6 spinal cord injury (as described above) breathe on his or her own (without the aid of an external device, such as a mechanical ventilator)?
Yes or No [Circle one]
Why or why not? _________________________________________________________
(f) Control of tidal breathing is vested primarily in the cortex or brainstem [circle one].
(g) If the central chemoreceptors sense a higher than usual concentration of carbon dioxide in the cerebral spinal fluid, ventilation will increase, decrease, or stay the same [circle one].
(h) Detection of stretching of the lungs and airways occurs through stimulation of mechanoreceptors or chemoreceptors [circle one].
(i) Neural commands for special acts of breathing (such as crying, speaking, or guided breathing) can override neural commands for tidal breathing.
True or False [circle one]
2–22. Complete the following items regarding resting tidal breathing. Refer to this figure (and accompanying text in your textbook).
(a) Lung volume change during tidal breathing is shown to be _________________ liter (L).
(b) Convert this lung volume change to milliliters (ml): _________ ml [Hint:1 L = 1000 ml]
(c) If tidal breathing typically involves 10% of the vital capacity (VC), what is the best estimate of this person’s VC? _____________________________________________
(d) Estimate how much lung volume change you use during tidal breathing: _____________ [Hint: Use your predicted VC, which you calculated in Question 2–14c.]
(e) What is the greatest inspiratory alveolar pressure generated? ________________ cmH2O
(f) What is the greatest expiratory alveolar pressure generated? ________________ cmH2O
(g) During inspiration, oxygen or carbon dioxide [circle one] leaves the alveoli and enters the blood. During expiration, oxygen or carbon dioxide [circle one] is released from the blood into the alveoli.
(h) Resting tidal breathing is accomplished by passive force alone.
True or False [circle one] Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2–23. Figure 2–25 from your textbook (reproduced here) represents a sustained vowel produced in an upright body position in response to “Take in the deepest breath you can and say ‘ah’ for as long and as steady as you can at your usual loudness.” Use the figure to complete the following items.
(a) What is the alveolar pressure during the sustained vowel? __________________ cmH2O
(b) Is the alveolar pressure higher or lower than the alveolar pressure during resting tidal expiration? ______________________________________________________________
2–24. Figure 2–26 from your textbook (reproduced here) also represents a sustained vowel produced in an upright body position in response to “Take in the deepest breath you can and say ‘ah’ for as long and as steady as you can at your usual loudness.” Use the figure to complete the following items.
(a) Approximately how much inspiratory muscular pressure is being exerted at the very beginning of the utterance? ___________________________________________ cmH2O
(b) At approximately what lung volume does the net inspiratory muscular pressure requirement change to a net expiratory muscular pressure requirement? ________ % VC
(c) What is the approximate alveolar pressure of the utterance throughout the expiration? ____________________ cmH2O
(d) During the period when inspiratory muscular pressure is required to maintain the targeted alveolar pressure, which muscles do the majority of the inspiratory braking?
________________________________________________________________________
(e) The expiratory muscles are most active at large or small [circle one] lung volumes.
2–25. Consider Figure 2–27 from your text (shown below) and complete the following items that pertain to conversational speaking in an upright body position.
(a) Breath groups (expiratory limbs of speech breathing cycles) during running speech breathing are usually initiated within what subdivision of the lung volume?
_____________________________________ (Write out your answer; do not abbreviate)
(b) Note that, in contrast to resting tidal breathing, the lengths (durations) of the expirations (time spent speaking) are irregular during speaking. What accounts for this? ___________________________________________________________________
(c) Inspirations are faster or slower [circle one] during speaking than during resting tidal breathing.
(d) Is it possible to produce speech during inspiration? Yes or No [circle one]
2–26. Consider Figure 2–28 from your text (shown below) and complete the following items that pertain to conversational speaking in an upright body position.
(a) Alveolar pressure for running speech is generally in the range of 50 to 100 cmH2O or 5 to 10 cmH2O [circle one].
(b) Alveolar pressure for speaking shown in the figure above is
____________________ cmH2O.
(c) The breath group shown in the figure begins at about __________ % vital capacity (%VC) and ends at about __________ %VC.
2–27. Complete the following items regarding speech breathing in the upright body position.
(a) Chest wall shape for running speech production is generally characterized by a more or less [circle one] inwardly displaced abdominal wall compared to that of relaxation.
(b) Abdominal wall muscles are more or less [circle one] active during running speech production compared to during resting tidal breathing.
(c) During running speech production, the abdominal wall is displaced inward and the rib cage wall is displaced outward, relative to their respective positions during relaxation. This chest wall configuration has the following consequences. [check all that apply]
_____ Flattens the diaphragm
_____ Stretches (domes) the diaphragm
_____ Stretches the expiratory muscles of the rib cage wall
_____ Causes the abdominal wall muscles to relax
(d) The muscular pressure(s) used to produce running speech in the upright body position has (have) been shown to be [check one]
_____ inspiratory rib cage wall muscular pressure alone.
_____ abdominal wall muscular pressure alone.
_____ expiratory rib cage wall muscular pressure and abdominal wall muscular pressure, with the latter predominating.
_____ inspiratory rib cage wall muscular pressure and abdominal wall muscular pressure.
(e) People often produce loud speech at larger or smaller [circle one] lung volumes than soft speech. Explain why.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
(f) Is it possible to produce louder speech at the same lung volume as softer speech?
Yes or No [circle one]
2–28. Complete the following items regarding speech breathing in the supine body position and how it contrasts with speech breathing in the upright body position.
(a) In the upright body position, inspiratory braking is accomplished primarily by the inspiratory rib cage wall muscles or diaphragm [circle one]. In the supine body position, inspiratory braking is accomplished primarily by the inspiratory rib cage wall muscles or diaphragm [circle one].
(b) How do muscular activities generated during upright and supine running speech production differ? Fill in the following chart to indicate if selected muscle groups are generally active (“On”) or not (“Off”).
Upright Running Supine Running
Speech Production Speech Production
Abdominal wall muscles _______________ _______________
Expiratory rib cage wall muscles _______________ _______________
(c) Sit upright on the floor and breathe quietly. At the end of a relaxed expiration, close your airway, either by closing your larynx or by closing your mouth and plugging your nose. Lie back so that you are resting supine on the floor. Open your airway.
What happened?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Why did it happen?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
(d) Most running speech production occurs at lung volumes that are larger or smaller [circle one] than the resting level. Does this change with body position? Yes or No [circle one]
(e) Alveolar pressure for running speech production is usually substantially higher, substantially lower, or generally the same [circle one] in an upright body position compared to the supine body position.
2–29. Complete the following items regarding ventilation during various activities, including speech production.
(a) Ventilation is often expressed in units of minute ventilation (in liters per minute, LPM). Minute ventilation is the amount of air inspired (or expired) over the course of a minute, calculated as the product of the average tidal volume (in liters, L) and breathing rate (breaths per minute, BPM). Calculate the minute ventilation for each of the following.
| Tidal Volume (L) | Breathing Rate (BPM) | Minute Ventilation (LPM) |
| 0.50 | 12.0 | |
| 0.60 | 10.0 | |
| 0.75 | 10.0 | |
| 1.10 | 7.5 |
(b) When we speak continuously for several minutes, we tend to hypoventilate or hyperventilate [circle one] and the amount of carbon dioxide in our blood tends to increase or decrease [circle one].
(c) When people speak under high drive conditions, such as during exercise or while at high elevation, which of the following do they tend to do? [check all that apply]
_____ They take deeper inspirations.
_____ They reduce airflow while speaking.
_____ They expend more air during speaking.
_____ They take smaller inspirations.
_____ They often blow off air.
_____ They speak at smaller than usual lung volumes (below the resting level).
_____ They speak at larger than usual lung volumes (well above the resting level).
_____ They increase ventilation.
(d) Rank the following activities according to magnitude of ventilation. Rank the activity you think is associated with the least ventilation as “1” and the activity you think is associated with the most ventilation as “3.”
_____ Heavy exercise
_____ Reading aloud continuously (without breaks)
_____ Resting tidal breathing
2–30. Complete the following items regarding variables that affect speech breathing, including drive-to-breathe, body type, age, and sex of the speaker.
(a) Ask a friend to read aloud the following paragraph (Hoit & Hixon, 1987). While your friend is reading, insert slash marks ( / ) where inspirations occur.
California is a unique state. It is one of the few states that has all the geographical features found in the rest of the country including deserts, forests, mountain ranges, and beaches. Its beaches draw thousands and thousands of people each year particularly during the summer months when the sun is shining, the skies are blue, and the ocean is warm enough to swim in. Surfers are often in the water by daybreak. Of course, there are many other things to do besides surfing such as sailing, swimming, waterskiing, kite flying, and sun bathing. In the winter, the mountains of California are favorite vacation spots. Here, snow skiing is the sport. There are many places in California to snow ski but the largest and most popular is Mammoth Mountain. Because of its popularity the property surrounding the Mammoth ski resort is extremely expensive. Unfortunately, the threat of earthquakes in this area is very high. In fact, earthquakes are common occurrences in many parts of California. Because of this, there are people who are afraid that someday a large piece of the state will fall into the Pacific Ocean. The possibility of a serious earthquake such as the one that demolished San Francisco in 1906 frightens some people enough that they choose not to visit California just for that reason.
Calculate the average number of syllables produced per breath group (expiration). _______________
(b) The number of syllables/breath group would probably increase, decrease, or stay the same [circle one] if your friend read the paragraph while exercising.
(c) An endomorphic (fat) person tends to move the abdominal wall more or less [circle one] than an ectomorphic (lean) person.
(d) If a 25-year-old man and a 75-year-old man read the same paragraph aloud, which one would inspire more frequently? ______________________________________________
(e) If a 25-year-old man and a 25-year-old woman read the same paragraph aloud, would you expect them to have similar speech breathing behavior? Yes or No [circle one]
(f) Resting tidal breathing is the same in silence as when listening to someone else speak.
True or False [circle one]
(g) Speech breathing is essentially adult like by age 7 years. True or False [circle one]
2-31. Answer the following questions about dyspnea.
(a) What is dyspnea?
______________________________________________________________________________
(b) Does a pulse oximeter measure dyspnea? Yes or No [circle one]. If not, what does it measure?
______________________________________________________________________________
