Part 1
Each question is worth 10 marks.
- Maintenance of calcium ion homeostasis is critical to neurological, cardiac and skeletal muscle function. Consider the roles of two hormones involved in the regulation of the concentration of calcium ions in the blood. Parathyroid hormone increases the concentration of calcium ions in the blood, while calcitonin decreases the concentration. Based on this information predict the body’s response to restore calcium balance if a person swallowed 100 antacid tablets made of a calcium compound in 10 minutes. Include in your answer the definition of homeostasis, the type of feedback loop involved and all of the components of a feedback loop.
Homeostasis is a dynamic condition in which the body retains equilibrium in the body’s internal environment in response to changing conditions due the constant interaction of the body’s many regulatory processes. One of this process is the negative feedback loop. A feedback loop is a series of events in which a certain condition in the body is monitored, evaluated, changed etc. The “condition” being monitored is called a controlled condition. A disruption to that controlled conditions initiates the feedback loop; this distribution is referred to as a “stimulus”. During a negative feedback loop a change in the control condition is reversed. The 3 main components through which this happens is the receptor (which notes the change in the controlled condition and sends and input to the control center), the control center (which basically controls the best value for the condition and so upon noticing a change it generates an output command to give a response to that change) and the effector, which is the body structure that receives the output from the control center and produces a response that then returns the controlled condition to normal. Based on this, if a person swallowed an access amount of calcium, the receptors would detect that increase in the calcium concentration which would result in the control center initiating a response in which calcitonin is secreted in order to decrease the blood calcium concentration and return it to normal once again.
- Provide one important example (in the human body) of each of the following:
- a single molecule containing ionic bonds
HCL
- a single molecule containing covalent bonds
- a single molecule containing hydrogen bonds
H2O
What is the function of each of these three molecules you have identified in the human body? Explain why each of these three molecules must have its specific types of bonds in order to perform that molecule’s function.
- Define mitosis and meiosis, and describe the differences between these two processes.
- List the skin glands and write details about their functions. What would be the consequences if a person’s skin glands stopped functioning?
- Describe how the structures of the epidermis allow it to provide immediate and indirect protection to underlying tissues.
- Fill in the words or phrases that best complete each of the following sentences.
- Functions of the skeletal system include support, protection, assisting in movement, _____ homeostasis, _____ production and triglyceride storage.
- The hollow space inside of long bones that is lined with _____ and filled with yellow marrow is the _____.
- The protein that provides flexibility and _____ strength to bone is _____.
- _____ bone tissue is organized into concentric rings of bone tissue, which are called osteons or _____.
- _____ accompany blood vessels within bone tissue; the periosteum is enriched with _____ neurons.
- Ossification may also be called _____; in an embryo, it begins with the organization of _____ tissue into the general shape of bones.
- _____ ossification occurs between _____ connective tissue sheet-like layers that resemble membranes.
- Activity of the epiphyseal plate causes the _____ region of a bone to grow in _____.
- _____, IGFs, insulin and T3/T4 are the primary stimulators of bone growth before _____.
- _____ is the hormone that _____ the effects of parathyroid hormone.
- Match the items in column A with the descriptions in column B to create the BEST MATCHES.
Items in column A can be used more than once when making matches to column B. However, there is only one correct answer for each blank space.
| Column A | Column B |
| articular cartilagediaphysisendosteumepiphysesperiosteumcanaliculilacunaelamellaeosteonstrabeculaecalcificationdevelopment of cartilage modeldevelopment of ossification centerdevelopment of periosteumosteoblastintramembranous ossificationosteoclast zone of hypertrophic cartilagezone of proliferating cartilagezone of calcified cartilagecalcitonincalcitriolforamenparathyroid hormonefossa | _____ raises blood Ca2+ levels by increasing osteoclast activity and blocking kidney secretion of Ca2+ _____ struts or plates within spongy bone that assist in withstanding stresses in a specific direction _____ channels in bone matrix; allow osteocytes to communicate with each other _____ expanded ends of a long bone _____ occurs after development of ossification center during intramembranous bone development; occurs prior to formation of trabeculae _____ lines the marrow cavity _____ protects bone; assists in fracture repair _____ a rounded passageway through a bone that permits blood vessels and/or nerves to pass _____ shaft of a long bone _____ process where the bone develops from mesenchyme, often forming flat bones _____ structural units of compact bone _____ bone cell that breaks down old bone matrix _____ spaces in bone matrix that contain osteocytes _____ tiny channels connecting osteocytes with the central canal of an osteon _____ occurs when mesenchymal cells cluster and differentiate during intramembranous bone development _____ inhibits osteoclastic activity _____ reduces friction and absorbs shock at joints that have a wide range of motion _____ consists of several stages, including the development of the periosteum from the highly-vascularized mesenchyme on the outside of new bone _____ does not occur during intramembranous bone development; must arise from mesenchyme template _____ part of a long bone that is not covered by the periosteum is covered by this structure |
- a. Match the items in column A with the descriptions in column B to create the BEST MATCHES.
Items in column A can be used more than once when making matches to column B. However, there is only one correct answer for each blank space.
| Column A | Column B |
| pronationabductioninversionglidingdepressiondorsiflexionextensionretractionlateral flexioncircumductionplantar flexionelevationadductionhyperextensionflexionmedial rotationeversionprotractionsupinationlateral rotation | _____ straightening the elbow joint_____ moving the arm anteriorly_____ spreading the fingers apart_____ opening the jaw_____ bending the ankle joint so that the foot moves downward_____ moving a thigh straight toward the other thigh_____ bending the wrist joint so that the hand moves posteriorly_____ bending the head so that it moves toward the right shoulder_____ bending the knee joint_____ moving the thumb around in a circle |
b. From the movements listed in column B, list the scientific names of the bones (learned in earlier chapters) that meet at each joint, i.e., where each movement occurs.
Note: The spaces below require one or two bones of a certain region. Be very specific when required.
- _____ articulates with _____
- _____ articulates with _____
- _____ articulates with _____
- _____ articulates with _____
- _____ articulates with _____
- _____ articulates with _____
- _____ articulates with _____
- _____ articulates with _____
- _____ articulates with _____
- _____ articulates with _____
- Compare the organization and functions of axial and appendicular skeletons, and describe in detail the girdles of the latter.
- Match the items in column A with descriptions in column B to create the BEST MATCHES.
Items in column A can be used only once when making matches to column B. There is only one correct answer for each blank space.
| Column A | Column B |
| contractilityelasticityelectrical excitabilityextensibilitythermogenesisendomysiumepimysiumfasciclesperimysiumtendonmyoblastsmyofiberssarcolemmasarcoplasmsarcoplasmic reticulumA bandH zoneI bandM lineZ discsactinmyosintitintroponintropomyosinacetylcholineacetylcholinesteraseCa2+calsequestrinNa+myogramrelaxation periodtwitch contractioncontraction periodwave summation | _____ property allowing muscle tissue to return to its original shape after contraction _____ modified smooth endoplasmic reticulum of muscle cell; stores Ca2+ _____ function of muscle; heat generation _____ period of contraction when most of the smooth and sustained movements is performed by the skeletal muscle _____ property allowing muscle to shorten forcefully when stimulated by an action potential _____ molecule needed for maximum storage of Ca2+ in sarcoplasmic reticulum _____ formed by fusion of connective tissues; joins muscles to bones _____ regulatory protein associated with thin filament; binds Ca2+ _____ bundles of muscle fibers _____ embryonic cells; fuse to form muscle cells _____ region where thick and thin filaments overlap each other _____ connective tissue around one bundle of muscle fibers _____ sites delineating ends of sarcomeres _____ structural protein; anchors thick filament to M line and Z disc _____ site where support proteins hold thick filaments together _____ contractile protein found in thin filament _____ enzyme that removes neurotransmitter from synaptic cleft; helps muscle relax _____ phenomenon in which successive stimulations cause stronger contractions _____ ion that enters muscle fiber, causing depolarization and allowing muscle action potential to propagate _____ contraction of a single muscle following a single stimulation |
Part 2
Weight: 5%
Minimum Pass Grade: 50%
Each question is worth 10 marks.
- Name the type of joint, and list the movements permitted at the shoulder joint. Under each movement’s name, list the names of the muscles responsible for each of these movements along with descriptions of their bone insertion.
- What are EPSPs and IPSPs, and how are they produced? Explain how these electrical currents are used in spatial and temporal summation to initiate or inhibit the generation of an action potential.
- Match the items in column A with the descriptions in column B to create the BEST MATCHES.
Items in column A can be used only once when making matches to column B. There is only one correct answer for each blank space.
| Column A | Column B |
| pia materdenticulate ligamentsepidural spacedura materarachnoid matertractnucleushornnerveganglionendoneuriummeningeal branchventral ramusrami communicantesdorsal ramustendon reflexcranial reflexspinal reflexautonomic reflexcontralateral reflexpolysynaptic reflexcrossed extensor reflex ipsilateral reflexmonosynaptic reflex patellar reflexAchilles reflexBabinski signspinothalamic tractvestibulospinal tractcorticospinal tractposterior columns | _____ branch of spinal nerve serving vertebrae; vertebral ligaments and blood vessels of the spinal cord _____ a group of axons with common functions within the spinal cord (or brain) _____ responsible for transmitting nerve impulses for sensing crude touch _____ a group of cell bodies found outside the spinal cord (or brain) _____ branch of spinal nerve serving anterior trunk and extremities _____ composed of collagen and fine elastic fibers; highly vascular _____ connective tissue coverings of axons within spinal nerves _____ coordinate movements with head movement _____ extension of the leg at the knee joint in response to tapping the patellar ligament _____ extensions of pia mater; suspend spinal cord within vertebral canal _____ plantar flexion of the foot in response to tapping the calcaneal tendon _____ responsible for transmitting nerve impulses for proprioception _____ region of gray matter in the spinal cord _____ reflex allowing you to maintain balance when you withdraw lower limb from a painful stimulus _____ reflex arc with more than one synapse in the CNS _____ reflex causing muscle relaxation so that tendons will not be torn _____ reflex in which sensory impulses enter one side of the spinal cord and motor impulses exit on the opposite side _____ general term used for a reflex with the integration center in the brain stem _____ space just superficial to dura mater; some anesthetics are injected into this area _____ general term used for a reflex with integration center in the gray matter of spinal cord |
- Describe how the central nervous system is protected from injury. List the components of a spinal reflex arc. Describe the function of each component.
- Outline the differences between a special sensory, motor and mixed cranial nerve, and briefly describe the functions of the sensory components (if any) of each cranial nerve.
- Complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks with the correct terms or phrases.
- The _____ nervous system regulates involuntary actions such as _____ muscle contraction.
- Increased _____ by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system generally _____ heart rate.
- The first motor neuron in any autonomic motor _____ is called a _____ neuron.
- The _____ division of the autonomic nervous system is also called the craniosacral division because the cell bodies of its neurons are located in the brain stem and _____ region of the spinal cord.
- Parasympathetic _____ fibers arise from the cranial and _____ areas of the CNS.
- Most sympathetic postganglionic fibers secrete the neurotransmitter_____, whereas parasympathetic postganglionic fibers secrete the neurotransmitter_____.
- In _____ syndrome, the cause for lack of sympathetic _____ to one side of the face is located in the superior cervical ganglion.
- The _____ parasympathetic outflow comprises preganglionic axons that extend from the _____ in cranial nerves III, VII, IX or X.
- _____ neurons release acetylcholine; they are found in the _____ and autonomic nervous systems.
- Nicotinic receptors bind _____, which always has a(n) _____ effect at these receptors.
- Excitation of _____ receptors results in increased cardiac output, elevated blood pressure and _____ breakdown of fatty acids.
- The balance between _____ and _____ activity is called autonomic tone.
- The _____ controls the balance between sympathetic and _____ activity.
- Activation of the _____ division causes a set of responses designed to protect the body from a real or perceived threat. Collectively, these responses are called the _____ response.
- Parasympathetic activation allows the body to process ingested food and conserve_____. The parasympathetic response is sometimes called the _____ response.
- EEG records _____ waves in awake infants, and _____ waves appear during stress in children.
- The distal _____ of an autonomic sensory neuron is a _____.
- The posterior and _____ parts of the hypothalamus control the _____ division of the autonomic nervous system.
- The anterior and medial parts of the _____ control the _____ division of the autonomic nervous system.
- The sympathetic _____ consist of one row on each side of the vertebral column for the sites of synapses between sympathetic preganglionic and postganglionic neurons; prevertebral _____ innervate organs below the diaphragm.
- Match the items in column A with the descriptions in column B.
Items in column A can be used only once when making matches to column B. There is only one correct answer for each blank space.
| Column A | Column B |
| adenosineanterolateral pathwaycaffeinechemoreceptorconsciousnessvisceral sensesthermoreceptorencapsulated nerve endingsexteroceptorsfree nerve endingsgeneral sensesimmediate memoryinteroceptorsjoint kinesthetic receptorskinesthesialemniscus (medial) pathwaylearninglong-term memorymechanoreceptormedial lemniscusmemory consolidationmuscle spindlesnociceptorNREM sleepphotoreceptorposterior column proprioceptionproprioceptorsREM sleepalpha motor neuronssensory modalityshort-term memorysomatic sensesspecial sensestendon organs | _____ formed by 1st order neurons carrying impulses for touch, pressure, conscious proprioception, and vibration _____ conduct impulses for conscious proprioception from the limbs, trunk ascend to the cerebral cortex _____ conducts impulses for pain and temperature from neck, and posterior head ascend to the cerebral cortex _____ detect tension on tendons; prevent tendon and muscle damage _____ measure muscle length; prevent excessive stretching of muscle fibers _____ receptors found in articular capsule; help limit strain on a joint _____ receptor found in retina; detects light _____ receptor that monitors the stretching of internal organs _____ receptor found in the hypothalamus; detects chemicals in the nose _____ reinforcement of a memory due to frequent recall of information _____ allows you to remember how to ride a bike even though you haven’t done so in years _____ type of memory students who cram for five minutes before an exam depend upon _____ receptors located at body surface; detect changes in external environment _____ receptors located in viscera, detect changes in internal environment _____ dendrite enclosed by connective tissue covering; found in lamellated corpuscles _____ 4 stages; controlled by hypothalamus, medulla oblongata and basal forebrain; _____ increased levels may be stimulus to sleep _____ state of wakefulness resulting from activation of cerebral cortex by RAS _____ include somatic and visceral senses _____ include vision, hearing, balance, taste and smell |
- Define and describe the relationship between sensation and perception. Explain the relationship between smell and taste, and describe how they are sensed and perceived.
- Describe the major events involved in image formation on the retina, and list in the correct order the components of the eye that light passes through on its way to the retina. Describe the specific consequences of any abnormality or malfunctioning of each of these components.
- List the names of the hypothalamic hormones that regulate the secretion of pituitary hormones. Describe how these hypothalamic hormones are delivered to the pituitary gland and describe the effects of these hypothalamic hormones. In addition, describe how the activities of the posterior pituitary gland are regulated by the hypothalamus.
Part 3
Weight: 5%
Minimum Pass Grade: 50%
Each question is worth 10 marks.
- Fill in the words or phrases that best complete each sentence. Be as specific as possible.
- Erythrocytes contain the enzyme _____, which catalyzes the conversion of metabolically produced CO2 and water into _____.
- Most old erythrocytes are removed from circulation and destroyed by cells called _____, as they rupture passing through the narrow capillaries of the organ called the _____.
- Undifferentiated cells called _____ reside in the bone marrow, where they continuously divide and _____ to give rise to each of the types of blood cells.
- The process of leukocytes squeezing through the capillary _____ to exit the vasculature is known as _____. Once they leave the bloodstream to fight a pathological condition, they never return.
- The genetically-determined glycoprotein and glycolipid antigens found on the surface of an erythrocyte are called _____, and a person with agglutinins that react with type A and blood type B has type _____ blood.
- During embryonic development, ninety-nine percent of the cardiac fibers are specialized for the function called _____, whereas the remainder is specialized for _____.
- The action potential delay at the _____ ensures that atrial excitation and contraction are complete before _____ excitation and contraction commence.
- The _____ is the volume of blood in the ventricle after ejection has been completed. An increase of this volume occurs when the stroke volume is _____.
- The three cations, K+, Ca2+, and Na+ have an important effect of heart function. Increased blood levels of Na+ blocks _____ inflow and results in a decrease in the force of contraction, while an excess of _____ blocks the generation of action potentials.
- An increase in parasympathetic activity has the following effect on stroke volume: _____. An increase in parasympathetic activity _____ atrial contractility.
- A patient has the misfortune to have both diabetes insipidus and Addison’s disease. How will those conditions affect the patient’s ability to regulate blood pressure?
- In the correct sequence, list the names of the blood vessels and heart’s chambers that an RBC would travel through (or flow into other vessels) on its journey from the muscles located anterior to the right tibia to the heart, then to the left shoulder muscles, and then back to the heart. Take in consideration only the vessels listed in the Study Guide.
- Describe the activation, proliferation and differentiation of T cells and B cells and briefly describe the functions of the differentiated cells.
- Match the items in column A with the descriptions in column B.
Items in column A can be used only once when making matches to column B.
| Column A | Column B |
| alveolar macrophagesalveoliBohr effectbronchibronchiolecerebral cortexchloride shiftcompliancecostal breathingDalton’s lawdiaphragmatic breathingepiglottiseupneaexpiratory reserve volumefaucesfunctional residual capacityHaldane effectHenry’s lawhilumhypothalamusinferior, middle, and superior nasal meatusesinspiratory capacitylarynxlimbic systemmedulla oblongatanoseparanasal sinusespharynxpleural membranesponsprimary bronchussecondary bronchussurface tensionsurfactantterminal bronchioletertiary bronchustotal lung capacitytracheavital capacity | _____ serves as a sound resonating chamber; contains tonsils; directs air inferiorly _____ passes air from pharynx into windpipe; site of sound production _____ resonate(s) sound; not part of pharynx _____ opening from oral cavity into pharynx _____ carries air to a segment of a lung _____ carries air directly into a respiratory bronchiole _____ surround the lungs _____ reduces surface tension at sites of gas exchange _____ actual sites of gas exchange _____ normal, quiet breathing _____ shallow breathing using just the external intercostal muscles _____ amount of effort required to expand the lungs and chest wall _____ tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume, usually about 3600 mL in males _____ tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume; usually about 4800 mL in males _____ residual volume + expiratory reserve volume; usually about 2400 mL in males _____ states that the amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of that gas and its solubility _____ when pH decreases, O2 saturation of hemoglobin decreases _____ each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own partial pressure _____ sets basic rhythm of breathing _____ includes the pontine respiratory group |
- You eat spaghetti with meatballs in marinara sauce and drink a glass of orange juice. Describe the chemical components of your meal, the digestive events in the mouth, and the content of your stomach one hour after you ingest the meal and juice, and describe what happens to the chemical constituents in the stomach. Describe the digestive processes for each of these nutrients in the small intestine, and the mechanisms for absorption of vitamins, water, and electrolytes.
- Fill in the words or phrases that best complete the sentence.
- _____ is the sum of all of the chemical reactions in the body, while _____ refers to chemical reactions that decompose large molecules into smaller ones.
- _____ is the chemical reaction in which there is a gain of electrons and it is the opposite of _____.
- _____ is a coenzyme that carries hydrogen atoms during coupled _____ reactions in the cell.
- _____ is made primarily in the mitochondria by a process called _____.
- _____ is a set of reactions in which there is the breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid, and _____ is the formation of glucose molecules from noncarbohydrate sources.
- _____ transport lipids in the bloodstream; they include VLDLs, LDLs, and HDLs. In lipolysis, _____ are split into fatty acids and glycerol.
- _____ is the molecule that enters the Krebs cycle; it is also used to synthesize fatty acids, ketone bodies, and _____.
- _____ is the primary hormone regulating metabolism during the absorptive state; the major task of the _____ state is to maintain the normal blood glucose level.
- The metabolic rate observed when a fasting individual is resting but awake and is experiencing comfortable conditions is called the _____. Peripheral _____ allows increased blood flow to superficial tissues of the body to release excess heat.
- _____ is the most abundant cation in the extracellular fluid; proper levels of this ion are critical for nerve impulse conduction and maintenance of _____ balance.
- Describe the pressures that affect glomerular filtration, and describe the effects of drinking too much beer on the urinary system.
- List and briefly describe the mechanisms that prevent acid-base imbalances from appearing in the body. In addition, indicate where each mechanism functions most significantly. (Do not explain any specific chemical reactions.)
- Describe the path of a sperm cell from the site of its maturation to the site of the acrosomal reaction. Include the major function of each segment in this process and descriptions and functions of fluids added along that path.
