The Changing Role of Women in Each Phase in China
Women in China have gone through lots of tribulations in the country’s transformation process, right from the ancient times to the modern period. Gender inequality has been a common characteristic in the handling of women in China with men receiving preferential treatment and accolades throughout the country’s history (Fry, n.d.). The gender inequality levels have however been improving since the country’s independence in 1949 with various regimes advocating for the need of an equal society with harmonized roles for men and women in the Chinese society. In ancient times, Guo (1997) notes that gender inequality was rife as women were considered objects for masculine gratification. They simply had no rights over themselves or property and were scorned against whenever they went against community interpretations of their roles, required behavior and codes of conduct. Men on the other hand were revered and allowed to own women as vessels of service and no limit was placed on the number of women they were entitled to.
The fight for gender equality in China gained mileage with time as after 1949, women increasingly gained recognition in China and their roles were no longer only tied to their homesteads and housework. Women got the opportunity to work in industries such as in the cotton mills in addition to being allowed to marry at advanced ages in addition to other favors that never existed in the ancient times (Gail, 2007). Through the ancient, republican, Mao and modern periods, gender equality grew in prominence in China and women’s scope of thought and service went beyond the household precincts. Globally, gender equality has been championed across different countries such as those in the West and women have been greatly empowered in their access to education, employment and marriage choices.
Through this study, the researcher will focus on gender inequality trends with regard to marriage, employment, and education in China. The study cuts through three phases including the traditional phase, Mao’s era, and the present times with focus on the shifting roles of women throughout the history of China. The traditional phase comprises years before 1949, Mao’s era runs from 1949-1978, while the present phase runs from 1978 to date. The study will also provide a comparison of the three eras in the last chapter.
Phase I: Pre 1949 (Traditional China)
Marriage
Confucian ideal
The gender insensitive environment in the ancient Chinese society is believed to have been guided by the Confucianist theory that asserted that women were by nature designed to submit in family settings (Guo, 1997). According to the theory, daughters were expected to be submissive to their fathers, wives to their husbands and widows to their sons. Men were not allowed to talk of issues within the household while women were not allowed to talk about issues outside the household, as their territory never went beyond household issues. The Confucianist theory overly implied that in marriage, the roles of women were inferior and predetermined right from their birth (Guo, 1997). The men were there to be praised for their strength and the women scorned against if they indicated signs of great strength as it was considered a threat to men domination.
Manifestation in marriage
Rules of chastity. In the ancient China, gender inequality was common in the Chinese community as women were enclosed to housework affairs while men were allowed a wide operational scope. Gail (2007) asserts that in the ancient period, marriage was sacred and it was a taboo for women to go against any societal understanding of marriage. The inequality in this phase was evident in that marriage rules applied only to women while men were allowed lots of freedom. Guo (1997) argues that in the traditional phase, chastity was a revered virtue among married women and none of them was allowed be promiscuous. Men, on the other hand, were allowed to have as many outside lovers as possible to help them get as many sons as they could (Guo, 1997). The inequality in this state is the preferential treatment of men on marriage issues as they are allowed to lead an adulterous life while women were not allowed to be with any other man after marriage even if their husbands were dead. Ridiculously, women who committed suicide after the demise of their husbands to help maintain chastity were regarded heroes yet they were sacrificing their lives for men who had several women when alive (Gail, 2007).
Roles in marriage. According to Gail (2007), the inequity in marriage was also evident in the roles women were accorded in the ancient period as they were only allowed be submissive, serve their husbands, and raise children despite having the ability to work in industries and help their husbands fend for the family. The roles of women were rigidly defined and centered to only housework matters and any woman who opposed their husbands or appeared strong was ridiculed. Men were handled like idols in this phase and women who were rude to them or their parents’ in-law were sent back to their parents for rehabilitation.
Therefore, in the pre-1949 period, women were required to just maintain their homesteads and bear children to help enhance the family lineage. Like Guo (1997), Chu and Ruoh-rong (2010) assert that women had no power over the actions of their men in marriage and had to always comply with the opinions of their husbands at all times. The level of gender inequality in marriage was very evident as men withheld the monopoly of decisions and property owning. Even at the death of a husband, the ancient Chinese society never allowed its women to own land as the brothers and other kinsmen of the deceased husband claimed ownership in case the widow had no sons (Chu & Ruoh-rong, 2010). The role of women in this period was thus ceremonial and required amendment to help women have voice in marriage in addition to being allowed to own property in marriage.
Importance of sons. Women without the ability to sire sons were lowly appreciated yet problems lay with the men who were not able to impregnate them with male children (Guo, 1997). The power to sire male children was not within the ability of women in the ancient China or other parts of the world yet those that were not able to bear sons bore the brunt of ridicule and disregard. A marriage was not complete without sons and men were always allowed to have as many women outside marriage as possible to help them increase the number of their sons.
Employment
Before 1930s
This period held the opinion that women were domestic workers whose roles included housework and toiling in family farms to help grow food for the family. The women were not engaged in any outside home productive employment as it was considered a preserve for men (Guo, 1997). The employment inequality in the ancient China was designed to favor only men while the women engaged in less productive activities. In the republican China, Gail (2007) argues that in the industrial period of the 1930’s, a few women got factory jobs because the factory managements wanted to just show that women were also there. Additionally, it is important to note that very few women got factory jobs in the republican period and the jobs were actually manual jobs. The well-paying formal factory jobs were reserved for men and nobody imagined of a situation here women could be managers in the industrial period.
Between 1930s – 1940s
The employment of the few women in the industries in before 1949 was further embroiled in domestic tussles as most men considered it insecure for their women to travel to factories due to their vulnerability to sexual exploitation, rape and violence (Gail, 2007). The segregation of women in employment in this period depicts blatant gender inequality in the consideration of who to give formal or informal employment in factory settings. Before the republican era, no woman had the chance to engage in any constructive employment capable of generating income that could lead to her stability and impendence.
As argued by Guo (1997), the women were supposed to be taken care of by the family because none of them owned property, hence, no need to get employed outside the household. However, the societal transformation enabling women to take part in factory employment gained momentum in the 1930s leading to high women employment rates in less skilled jobs within cotton milling factories. The unfortunate thing in the employment of women in the pre 1949 era was when some cotton milling factories employed only unmarried women, as the condition of marriage never affected married men (Gail, 2007). Most of the available jobs towards the end of the republican era were unskilled and most of the employees especially women just came from the villages to work in the cotton mills at a low pay (Burnett, 2010). This was an illustration of the inequality in employment between men and women in the traditional Chinese society. As noted by various researchers, the main fronts of inequality in the ancient Chinese society were guided by the confuciasist theory and other societal believes that attempted to portray men as idols for women to submit to (Gail, 2007; Guo, 1997).
Education
Imperial time
Education was not much established in the pre 1949 era as the society mainly held to traditional ways of life. According to Guo (1997), the main education provisions during this period in time were the teaching of boys and girls of the expected ways of life in their adulthood. Women were taught to be submissive and obedient to their parents and in-laws while men were taught what was expected of them as heads of family in adulthood (Guo, 1997). Burnett (2010) opines that education provided to children, teenagers centered on the community believe, and cultural practices that were required to be upheld by all incoming adults.
Republican Time
Burnett (2010) notes that the perception of women with regard to education gained momentum after the 1911 revolution that led to the formation of the nationalist government that yearned for gender equality despite lacking the power to implement the policy. Most women in the ancient era never had interest in pursuing higher education for better job after the introduction of formal education because they were discouraged by the low pay accorded to women, societal discrimination and the low industry absorption rate of women. The preference for men in factory jobs killed the women’s ambition to pursue higher education though this changed after the communist party formed an all-inclusive government that fought gender equality (Guo, 1997).
Phase II: 1949 – 1976 (Maoist Era)
China attained independence in the year 1949 and required massive rebuilding to help the economy rise and strengthen. During this period, a lot of labor was required in the industries to help enhance the productivity of the country’s industrial sector. Guo (1997) opines that the China’s leader at the time of independence known as Mao was a staunch believer in equality and the power of women. During Mao’s tenure, gender inequality faced an insurmountable threat as the leader argued that the country could not progress without the massive labor input of women in the factories and other income generating sectors (Burnett, 2010). The transformation of gender equality occurred very rapidly in Mao’s era and women gained much ground in their quest for equality and economic stability. The communist government believed in equality for all and labored to ensure gender equality in China.
Employment
Employment in China after 1949 was open to all as gender inequality faded off with the formation of the new government for the People’s Republic of China. The new employment regulations at the time used the slogan “equal work for equal pay” to help motivate more women to join the workforce (Burnett, 2010). The fight for equality in employment was not however successful at the start because the societal consideration of women had not changed. The society still held the opinion that women were better designed for household engagements and not factory jobs, making it difficult for several women to leave their homes to join the factory labor force (Gail, 2007).
Inequality
The provision of better employment and remuneration for women faced economic hurdles in the first five-year plan as economic depression resulted in a saturation of the labor force and increased unemployment, prompting the government to advice women to go back home as the economy recovered (Burnett, 2010). The decision to send women home during periods of tough economic times depicted employment inequality in the independent China, as women fell victim of first casualties in the restructuring process. The “iron rice bowl” concept was however a great boost for employment equality in China as the state provided for salary to all employees in addition to providing adequate medical care and child care to help all adults take part in factory jobs (Burnett, 2010). Despite most women being unskilled and with limited formal education when compared to their male counterparts, the government encouraged them to take up unskilled factory jobs to help free male skilled workers for better paying skilled jobs.
The idea of equality in employment in China in the Cultural Revolution period is more of a mirage than reality because what seems practical is the provision of employment for all and not equality in employment. Inasmuch as Mao came up with several slogans for equality in employment in China, he still allowed women to leave the labor force during times of economic distress to attend to housework duties (Guo, 1997). Women were encouraged to get out of their homes during this period to join factory labor force yet they still had reserved domestic roles at home that they had to perform as per the Chinese societal norms. Therefore, the engagement of women in paid labor was an increase in their workload while men just enjoyed working in the factory with no additional tedious domestic chores. The inequality in labor in this case is outwardly evident and indicates that the state most probably fought to provide employment for all and not equality in employment.
In the rural areas, Gail (2007) notes that most labor was agricultural oriented and industries established in this region dealt in agricultural products. The manual labor in the fields was however considered most suited for women while the technical services such as the operating and running of machines was a preserve for men. Women worked hard in the fields and factory premises in providing unskilled services and received little pay when compared to their male counterparts. Equality in employment was not forthcoming in the early periods of Mao’s era as most of the workforce activities favored men and women seemed to be the option when men workers were not available or overstretched (Gail, 2007). When compared with the ancient period, it is however worth noting that equality in employment had gained several milestones as women were not even allowed to engage in labor outside the homestead in the first place.
From the labor engagement developments in the Maoist era, it is important to note that the government considered economic development and empowerment as a tool for advancing gender equality. Gail (2007) reflects that despite the variations in the handling and remuneration of women in the workplace, the government consistently held the opinion of employment equality for the development and equality of the country. Women provided essential and affordable services when compared to their male counterparts and thus were important for the economic growth of the country. If the government was directly and authoritatively designed towards gender equality, then the first move could have been the direct engagement of women in the establishment of various development policies. This period overly saw increased recognition and involvement of women in paid labor in addition to leading to the realization of equality despite the challenges it later faced in the reform period.
Government promotion
Burnett (2010) argues that the Cultural Revolution period between 1966 and 1976 increased the momentum of women participation in the workforce as women gained experience and skills in the workforce leading to some of them being appointed to leadership positions. Hitherto this period, women in leadership positions was an unimaginable issue and a taboo in the traditional settings as strong women were scorned against whenever they seemed to excel in male dominated fields. The rise in women participation in the labor force led to “socialist androgyny” as the perception of women all over China changed greatly with the excellence of women at work (Burnett, 2010). Women were no longer considered the unskilled and unschooled in this social phase as they were now compared with men in the labor force circles. However, Burnett (2010) suggests that the discrepancy in treatment and remuneration across genders was depicted when the government approved pay scales dependent on the types of industries leading to lower pay for women oriented industries such as the textile industries. Therefore, the low remuneration for women oriented industries when compared with the male dominated ones is sufficient proof for the mirage of the pursuit for gender equality in the Maoist era.
The praise and honor for feminine features was fast fading as strong, exceptional and hardworking women were now getting praises for their input to industry productivity unlike the case in the pre 1949 period. As Chu and Ruoh-rong (2010) argues, it was, however, not the case in the actual Chinese society settings as the public still considered women unsuitable for formal employment. The family system in China was still highly respected and men remained the heads of families. As a result, most women surrendered their monthly earnings to their husbands who could then plan on the cash they never worked for. Some societal settings accorded less respect to working women and those in leadership positions as they grouped them in the category of prostitutes (Chu & Ruoh-rong, 2010). The high esteem for women and gender equality was considered a government perspective of women as the society seemed to veer off the notion of according respect to high achieving women in the labor force. Most of the achievements of women in this Cultural Revolution period however faced serious hurdles in the reform era leading to a conclusion that the Cultural Revolution period was an era of social chaos.
Opportunities for women
