The Talismanic Scroll from Egypt
This object is conserved as part of the collection at the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art. The scroll was found to date back to the eleventh century and is thought to have been produced during the Fatimid Islamic Caliphate which dated between 909 and 1171 C.E. The scroll is thought to have been made by ancient Egyptians and was recovered in Egypt. The scroll was donated to the Metropolitan Museum of Art by the Abemayor family in 1978 along with other amulets and talismans.
The scroll is 9 by 3 inches or 24.9 by 7.9 centimeters in size. Like many other scrolls, the scroll has text written horizontally on several pieces of paper that are attached together by velvet. The scroll also has images in addition to the text. The talismanic scroll was created to be placed in an amulet box. The writings on the scroll which include Quranic verses, incarnations, and prayers are in the form of ink imprints on paper. The verses of the Quran that are included on the talismanic scroll are arranged in a logical fashion and they increase in number as one continues to read the scroll downwards (Alsaleh, 2014). The verses selected for the scrolls have eschatological flavor and mainly promote the occult of religion as it was at the time. In fact, it is thought that recitation of the verses in the right way can invoke special protective powers; this underlies the significance of this and other scrolls in ancient Islamic practice (Talmon‐Heller, 2012). Johnson puts it even simpler, the words of the scrolls themselves were regarded as magic utterances; a position which Bass and colleagues (2012) agree with. The verses also reveal the greatness of God and his all-important and perfect will. The print on the scroll is arranged to make the scroll seem like a certificate – the scroll begins with the praise of God before progressing to the pilgrimage mission – the mission consists of logically arranged verses that expound of a thematic issue in Islam and daily living on the Ancient Arabic society – and end with signatures to signify the completion of the pilgrimage mission that is said to have been done (Alsaleh, 2014). The print is a block print which contains Kufic which is the oldest calligraphic Arabic script. It is thought that block printing was used in Islamic scrolls long before it was introduced in European societies (Safadi, 1981). The scroll, like many other Islamic scrolls of the time, contains Solomon’s seal – a six-pointed star. This seal, was thought to not only represent but also invoke the greatest name of the Almighty God (Graham, 2011). Any writing with the seal was thus considered to be an authentic representation of the will and directions of the Almighty God; in essence, the seal was like a court of arms is to a kingdom.
Apart from the distinct layout of the talismanic scroll that is discussed above, the talismanic scrolls were made to specifically bond with the communities of the time (Alsaleh, 2014; Holland, 2011). Each scroll was made to specifically address a certain class of individuals in the society. Most scrolls were either addressed to the military or to religious individuals (Elad, 1999). The scroll in question was specifically addressed to religious leaders of the Muslim society of the time. The leaders were being congratulated for completing a pilgrimage mission and the heavenly rewards for this accomplishment were mentioned in the latter verses of the scroll (Jayyusi et al., 2008).
The scroll, as it is was meant to be kept in a special amulet box. The amulet boxes would then be worn close to one’s body or attached to a weapon. It was believed that the wording of the text on the scroll had special apotropaic powers (Alsaleh, 2014). The powers of the wordings were thought to be able to ward off the evil eye and rewarding the one who punishes demons by giving them a place of refuge in the Quran. Additionally, the talismanic scroll was a devotional scroll. Devotional scrolls were meant to guide the use in praying. Devotional scrolls, like the talismanic scroll, contained prayers and verses of the Quran (Alsaleh, 2014). Carrying the talismanic scroll in its amulet was meant to help the user protect themselves against the dangers of daily life. In as much as devotion and use of amulets were thought to be contradicting principles in Ancient Islam, this scroll seems to interlink the two (Coffey, 2009). The scroll, which is predominantly used as an amulet because of its talismanic powers also quotes verses and religious sayings that tend to encourage devotion among believers.
Like many other non-dated block-printed scrolls, the talismanic scroll is geographically localized to the Medieval Islamic Mediterranean (Wright, 2009). The fact that the talismanic scroll like many other scrolls that are thought to be of the same medieval period was not dated has put limitations on the use of the scroll. Pilgrimage scrolls that have distinct dates and can be correctly classified to be of certain pre-historical and historical periods are thus more useful in modern times. The fact that the talismanic scrolls do not have a distinct date on them also provides a special challenge in classifying them. The talismanic scroll in our focus, for instance, is classically a Group E scroll since it combines both text and figures. However, classifying the scroll as a Group E would be difficult since the scrolls in this group are thought to have been made between 1205 and 1237 while the scroll in our focus has been radiologically and logically dated to a period prior to 1205 (Alsaleh, 2014). The group E talismanic scrolls have been thought to be the most enigmatic by many scholars. A combination of verbal text and figurative schema in the scrolls has been thought to act as an itinerary to the believer and as such is a pilgrimage record (Chekhab-Abudaya et al., 2016). The scrolls are based on pilgrimage journeys and thus effectively transform geographic sites into religious topographies and seen to authenticate various religious practices (Roxburgh, 2012).
In association with the current Islamic lifestyle in the UAE, the talismanic scroll is of great relevance. As earlier alluded to, the talismanic scroll was associated with protection of the individual both in times of war and peace. Getatchew and his colleagues (2009) found that the users of talismanic scrolls regarded them as guardian angels which protected them from any adverse events. Even though the people of UAE do not walk with weapons nor attach amulet talismanic scrolls on their bodies, there is still need to for one to protect themselves and to have effective weapons to deal with the enemy. However, one thing that is common among the predominantly Islamic population of UAE is the belief that God is able to protect one from their enemies. Walking with the Quran or sections of it is associated with better protection for the believer (Schmitz, 1992). In the olden days, the talismanic scroll thus played the role played by the Quran in modern times, protecting the individual believer who carries it. In essence, this talismanic scroll reveals that the principles of Islam as an Abrahamic religion have not changed greatly over the centuries – the belief and Allah and Prophet Mohammed and their role in protecting his people are still predominant (Campo, 2009; McAuliffe et al., 2012). Moreover, the verses quoted on the talismanic scroll reveal the greatness of God and His will and the influence of this on the judgment day. Present-day Muslims in the UAE still believe in the judgment day and thus the verses are still relevant to them. One verse which says that it is only God who can help a believer on the judgment day stands out. The verse encouraged believers of the time and even those of today to believe in and depend on God alone.
Even though the talismanic scroll looks like a thing of the old, it is of great relevance to the current practice of Islam. The scroll, as it is, is a record of pilgrimage and the rewards for the pilgrimage activities that have been completed. The scroll is, thus, an encouragement to modern-day Muslims to embrace the practice of pilgrimage in order for them to reap the rewards that are mentioned in the scroll. The scroll is also a revelation of how the Muslims of the olden days revered and depended on God alone. It is thus an encouragement to the modern day Muslims of the UAE and other places to revere God and depend on Him alone.
Code of Ethics in Conservation of Cultural Heritage
Conservation of cultural heritage is of great importance as it ensures that the significant historical events that relate to the origin of humanity and various social aspects of human life are preserved well for the benefit of future generations (Corsane, 2005). Upholding proper professional ethics is thus of great importance. However, the wide span of archeological research, which makes up heritage, makes it difficult to find a specific code of ethics that should be upheld by professionals in this field (Corsane, 2005). Archeological work is known to cover political, cultural, and economic contexts of humanity and archeologists and related professionals now work mainly in museums, government institutions, and private institutions (Malkogeorgou, 2006). These widespread nature of their places of work provides another challenge in making a universally acceptable professional code of ethics (Sease, 1998). The rapidly changing technological and realistic approaches in cultural heritage also provide a major challenge in designing a comprehensive code of ethics (Sease, 1998). This paper attempts to compile a suitable code of ethics for professionals who conserve cultural heritage and explain their significance in relations to the effects of the 1966 flood of Venice. As Baglioni, Giorgi and Dei (2009) put it, the disastrous events in the aftermath of the flood of Venice in 1966 are central to the modern practice of cultural conservation and by extension the code of ethics that underlie the practice.
First, each of the professionals who are licensed or warranted to work as conservators of cultural heritage must have an inherent drive that makes them strive to preserve all available forms of cultural heritage for the benefit of future generations (Canadian Association for Conservation of Cultural Property, 2000). There seemed to be a deficiency of this inherent drive before 1966, something which explains the massive losses in Venice. In any case, their major role is preservation, and as such, their mindsets should be set towards preservation. However, at times there is a need to use or to understand these artifacts that make up cultural heritage. Keeping artifacts for the sake of future generations without understanding them in this generation makes the artifacts to be of little meaning to the future generations. Moreover, there may be other key uses of the artifacts and the information contained in them. Therefore, it is important for the conservators to balance between the need to preserve and the need to use and understand the various components of cultural heritage (Corsane, 2005). In other words, the conservators have a role to ensure that the current generation appreciates the various components of cultural heritage and that these artifacts are preserved well for them to be appreciated by future generations whilst they are still in their best possible form.
In addition, the actions of the licensed or warranted individual in conservation of cultural heritage artifacts should be guided by their knowledge of and respect for the artifacts unlike the secretive nature of dealings that existed before 1966. As such, the conservators should handle the artifacts with the utmost respect. Also, the conservators need to have wide knowledge on the artifacts, not only for their benefit but also for the benefit of the people who want to learn about the artifacts (Clavir, 2002). It is important for this knowledge on the artifacts to contextual. Understanding the aesthetic, religious, historical, geographic, physical, social, scientific, technical, and religious contexts of each cultural property will make the conservator be of utmost benefit to the people who visit the institution where they work in search of knowledge on the property (Malkogeorgou, 2006).
Moreover, it is important for warranted or accredited professionals in the conservation of natural heritage to understand their limits (Canadian Association for Conservation of Cultural Property, 2000). It is evident that limitations were not there before 1966 and everyone acted anywhere in the conservation cycle hence the bad state of conservation at the time of the Venice disaster. These limits include individual limits and institutional limits. Individually, like in any other profession, it is important for professionals in the conservation of cultural heritage to work and operate within the limits or the requirements of the licenses or the accreditations that they hold. Operating or attempting to operate outside the limits of one’s license is not only a breach of the code of ethics but also a gross breach of the law which can orchestrate legal action against the individual. Furthermore, it is important for one to appreciate their individual abilities and the limit of these abilities. Such understanding of one’s status will help them to avoid making avoidable mistakes by engaging where they are not qualified to. At the institutional level, it is important and ethical for professionals in heritage conservation to know and appreciate the capacity and the limitations of their institution in devising and implementing conservation measures (Malkogeorgou, 2006). Failure to understand and appreciate these can be disastrous to the individual and the institution which they work for as they would try to attempt measures that cannot be carried out comfortably at the institution.
Like in any other profession, integrity and respect for colleagues and other professionals that one has to interact with are paramount in the career of caring for cultural artifacts. In caring for the cultural artifacts, the honesty of the conservators will ensure that the artifacts are indeed kept safe and that any malicious individuals shall not tamper with them (Clavir, 2002). The large material value of some cultural artifacts demands for utmost integrity among the people caring for them. Individuals with less integrity might use the opportunity of the trust given to them to use the artifacts for their own personal advantage. Again, like all other professions, interaction and interdependence with one’s colleagues and other professionals is key to the career. In conservation of cultural property and talismanic artifacts of the old, many professionals are required (Clavir, 2002). These professionals groups range from the archeologists to the subordinate staff in the specific institutions. As such, it is important for professionals in these departments to uphold utmost respect for each other so as to enhance their collaboration hence the effectiveness of the conservation process.
Furthermore, professionals in conservation of material culture need to continually strive to better themselves and the whole practice of the conservation (Canadian Association for Conservation of Cultural Property, 2000). Even though it does not seem like a professional ethic as such, it is the responsibility of the professionals in conservation institutions to continually remain open to learning new information and techniques which can make them better. Having better individual professional will obviously improve the profession as a whole. It will also be important for the professionals to be open not only to learn new things but also to teach what they are good at and the additional techniques that they have learned on the job to junior colleagues so as to have a continuity of the knowledge and for the sake of the profession (Clavir, 2002). Indeed, it is the ethical duty of professionals in conservation of material culture to maintain a high level of expertise by continuous learning and training and to always seek to raise those standards even higher. This objective can be achieved by ensuring the junior colleagues learn the new techniques and by being innovative to come up with new techniques of doing various things that are suitable for their institutions.
Lack of awareness is one of the biggest threats and challenges of the material culture conservation industry; secrecy was a big cause of decreased awareness before 1966. Many people lack an understanding of the artifacts that are kept by conservators and thus many people do not seem to know the rationale of conserving such materials (Malkogeorgou, 2006). For this reason, it is the ethical responsibility of all professionals who make up the conservation industry to increase the awareness levels of the rest of the population when it comes to the need to conserve cultural artifacts and other talismanic evidence of antic and ancient human culture (Canadian Association for Conservation of Cultural Property, 2000). Seeking to help members of the public understand the artifacts themselves can be a good route to convincing them why such artifacts should be conserved and what the conservation will mean to the future generations. In short, it is the ethical responsibility of all licensed or warranted professionals in cultural conservators to maintain high levels of effective communication with colleagues, other professionals in the conservator, and the general public with an aim of raising the awareness levels of the general public (Kalman, 2014). Proper communication is also key in enhancing the rate at which the public understands the various contexts of the artifacts in a conservator and the rationale for having the artifacts conserved there (Malkogeorgou, 2006).
In addition to the high level of integrity that is required of all licensed or accredited professionals in conservators, it is the ethical responsibility of these individuals to distance themselves from commercial activities regarding the cultural artifacts (Canadian Association for Conservation of Cultural Property, 2000). Again, this code is meant to avert the secrecy that existed in the industry before the 1966 disaster of Venice. It is usually the activities of commerce in the artifacts that expose the workers to deals that tamper with their integrity. Moreover, the commerce of the artifacts is not always to a good course; it is usually a representation of shady deals of malice from specific individuals who trigger such deals for their own advantage (Malkogeorgou, 2006). Even though selling a talismanic artifact can fetch an institution a good amount of money for them its own development, it usually denies many individuals of present and future generations the chance to witness and understand the contexts of that particular artifact. On the other side, deals related to buying artifacts, especially from alleged excavators can also be shady (Clavir, 2002). The excavators may want to defraud the institution by selling those fake artifacts or artifacts that are not as valuable as they allege. It is, therefore, not only ethical but also sensible for workers to try to distance themselves for artifact commerce for the sake of their own integrity and also to protect their organization from being defrauded and defamed (Gerstenblith, 1988).
Some workers may, however, have been licensed to get involved in commerce of the cultural artifacts. These workers need to uphold high levels of integrity (Clavir, 2002). These workers should also be familiar with the specific ethical codes that are meant to regulate commerce of cultural artefacts (Blake, 2000). Before accepting and buying an artifact, the source of the artifact must be established well. In the case that the artifact came from an unorthodox source or was recovered in a manner that is not rightful, it is the moral and ethical responsibility of the licensed professional to take the artifact and trigger a mechanism aimed at returning the artifact to its mother nation (Edson, 2005). Additionally, before accepting an artifact whose acquisition procedure has been established and can be confirmed to be orthodox and morally acceptable, it is the responsibility of the licensed individual to examine the artifact and correctly value it (Malkogeorgou, 2006). The process of valuation should be driven by a need to develop the institution and have as many artifacts availed to current and future generations rather than a malicious need to benefit oneself from the need.
As earlier alluded to, it is key for all licensed or warranted persons to strive to be up-to-date with all the latest developments in their line of work (Canadian Association for Conservation of Cultural Property, 2000). Information and use of technology are changing at a fast rate in all aspects of conservation. Among the various aspects of conservation that workers should look to be conversant with the latest changes are documentation, treatment of the artifacts, preventive conservation, examination of the artifacts before stocking them, research, and training methods (Scarre & Scarre, 2006). These are basic activities in a conservator and one can only perform them perfectly when they are conversant with the latest advancements in conducting them; ideally, the newer techniques are meant to improve efficiency, minimize cost, and ensure that most if not all techniques used at institutions are based on available scientific evidence; this is one way of avoiding the secrecy that was the norm in conservation of material culture before the Venice disaster (Clavir, 2002). This just emphasizes the ethical need for the licensed or warranted individuals to be open to learning and teaching newer techniques so as to maintain good levels of service even with the changing times and to ensure that this efficacy is maintained even after their departure (Malkogeorgou, 2006).
Finally, like for any other profession, it is the ethical duty of all professionals who prescribe to this code of ethics to understand and to act in accordance with this code at all times (Canadian Association for Conservation of Cultural Property, 2000). In fact, in professions where a standardized code of ethics exists, one is required to vow an allegiance to the code of ethics before they can be licensed or accredited to practice by the various accrediting and licensing bodies (Murphy, 2016). All workers must, therefore, be conversant with every statement of the proposed code of ethics, acknowledge their appreciation and subscription to the code, and henceforth act in strict accordance with this code of ethics (Hoffman, 2006). Failure to adhere to this code of ethics can be considered a civil crime and in worse instances – a frank criminal act (Corsane, 2005). Apart from just protecting oneself from possible legal action against them, adherence to this code of ethics is a good indicator of one’s devotion to improving the profession in general.
Violation of this code of ethics shall have dire consequences to the professionals who acknowledged it and subscribed to it. These consequences include the legal considerations that have been mentioned above. Depending on the standards of the specific institution, a gross violation of the code of ethics can lead one to lose their jobs. Other institutions may require violators of to resign from their positions so as to allow investigations to be conducted once allegations of violation of the code of ethics have been made against them (Clavir, 2002). All these actions are not taken to make the workers suffer but as a precautionary measure that is meant to ensure that the massive loss of cultural artifacts that was witnessed in the 1966 flood of Venice is not repeated.
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