- The emergence of English as a global language creates a kind of “World Lingua Franca” which can potentially unite the world community for the good of all its citizens. Discuss the disadvantages of having a global language according to David Crystal.
David crystal presents the dangers and potential disasters of having a global language in his famous book English as a Global Language. First, he argues that having a global language is likely to create a phenomenon that can be termed linguistic power. Linguistic power becomes apparent when individuals who use a certain language as their first language take advantage of other people who use it as their second language. This leads to formation of elites within the native speakers who take advantage of the ability to think and act quickly in their first language to manipulate those who use the same language as their second language. Secondly, a global language provides a fertile ground for the development of linguistic complacency especially amongst the natives.
This is true especially in countries where English is a native language, where the natives develop laziness to learn other people’s languages as they deem their language superior to others. This leads to non-natives speaking two or more languages while the natives only know their language. With the entry of a global language, identities can be lost since the language can replace a people’s native language. This is called linguistic demise; a significant disadvantage of global language. Global language according to crystal can also lead to linguistic bankruptcy amongst non-natives. This is because the chosen language might become very complex and impoverishing to people who are learning it because of the contexts and need for more words to describe things that were dominant in their native language. Lastly, a global language poses a threat of societal clash since it can never be a guarantee for synchronization and understanding. History has proven this severally, with an example being the American civil war.
- One frequently stated objection to the development of non-native varieties of English is that as divergent norms arise around the world, English will transform into distinct languages that will not be mutually comprehensible, and the value of English for international communication will be lost. Why do you agree or disagree? NOTE that you need to include MacArthur’s discussion of the English languages in either argument.
English is one of the most widely spoken languages by millions of people who occupy different geographical locations and have different cultures and civilization. It is therefore true that a metamorphosis of this language is inevitable which threatens it is mutually comprehensibility across those who speak it as their native language, as their second language and those who speak it as a foreign language. MacArthur in his book The English Languages argues that even in those territories that English is considered to be a native language, the kind of English spoken is not similar to other territories where it is a native language. He uses the United States and the United Kingdom as an example to substantiate the fact that the standards that are accepted in territories that speak English as a native language differs. Cultures, social interactions and the standards of lives of people in a particular territory influence how people learn a foreign language. A global language ‘learnt as a second language by non-natives. The aspect of dialect variation in the US becomes apparent with what can be termed as modern pronunciation and articulation of words replacing the olds. MacArthur suggests that just like Latin, English might as well become different to the extent of losing its authenticity as a single language.
- Compare and contrast English use in Singapore and India.
India and Singapore are some of the countries that have made significant steps towards adopting English as their official language. In Singapore, there are two forms of English used, Singlish, the Singapore colloquial English, and the standard Singapore English. In India and the Indian subcontinent, English is slowly becoming one of the Lingua Francas and like in Singapore; it is a language that is used by socio-cultural elites in order to earn economic and political advantages over others. Standard English in Singapore is spoken by majority of students thus making the percentage of people who use the language high as compared to Indian where an approximated 28% of the population has the ability to use English. In both countries, the adoption of English as the official and national is aimed at to reduce linguistic rampant diversity that is a barrier to communication. Both countries have seen various agitate campaigns to promote the learning, adoption and use of fluent English.
- How does Janet Holmes define metaphorical code-switching? Explain it with some of her examples or your own.
In her book An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Janet Holmes defines metaphorical code switching as the ability to vary codes or use different codes in the same speech event for purely rhetoric reasons. In this case, a speaker can switch between two dialects of the same language or completely shift from one language to the other in order to blend with a particular group of people. Holmes gives an example of Mr. Rupa who is a prominent businessman and also a member of the Buang community. Mr Rupa has the ability to switch between Tok Pisin and Buang in his speech while addressing an audience. Through switching between the two codes rapidly while engaging his audience, his is able to draw on the association of the codes effectively. Through speaking in Buang, he creates a sense of belonging in the minds of his fellow tribesmen whereas t6hrough Tok Pisin, he is able to appeal to the business class and maintain a social status. The rapid switching is purely for rhetorical reasons, usually referred to as metaphorical code switching. She further gives an example of how the Samoan people code switch between Samoa and English. Samoan is used to express embarrassments effectively while English is used in speech to show objectivity about the subject matter.
- Compare and contrast the arguments from the movements of the English-First (US English) and the English-Plus with regard to the proposition of English as the Official Language in the United States of America. Why do you agree or disagree with any of their positions?
Since the attainment of independence, the need to maintain a united and solid nation in the United States led to the emergence of very many movements. Notably, the English-first and the English-plus movements came to limelight after people saw the need to raise a nation in which people could understand each other. Both the English-first and the English-Plus movements came propositions came into play in the 1980’s in the United States. The English-First movement was the first to be born in 1981 and sought to introduced English as the national language and do away with other languages. Six years later, the English-Plus movement came into being to counter the effects of the English-First movement and preserve other linguistic diversity and cultural miscellany. I concur and support the English-Plus movement arguments and recommendations because doing away with other languages and cultures is paramount to killing the identity and pride of a people. Adopting a national language should not translate to the murder of other languages and cultures that are distinct to a nation as a whole.
- What is footing according to D. Tannen? Give an example illustrating the definition.
Tannen defines footing as a kind or type of frame that recognizes and identifies the relationship between speakers. Tannen argues that the meaning that one gets from a conversation depends largely on the relationship between those engaging in a conversation. The same message or information can be conveyed in utilizing different footing and produce totally different effects altogether. Usually, footing may change quite a number of times in a single conversation requiring the speakers to simultaneously balance a number of roles. Footing not only occurs in informal conversation but also exist in more formal levels such as at the institutional and socio-cultural levels. For instance, a scenario where someone tries to pass through a wheat plantation and I am the security officer; “How can I be sure that you do not want to steal a sack of wheat from the farm?” the frame in the question implies that both the system or the owners of the farm and I are of the opinion that you should not go through the farm. Second reaction; “I wish I could let you pass through the farm so that you avoid using the longer route, I think it could save a couple of your minutes, but the owners of the farm do not allow trespassing.” The footing in the second reaction shows that I could allow you to pass through if the owners were not strict with their rules.
- Provide complete definitions of Pidgin and Creole, and narrate a hypothetical/real scenario in which a Pidgin originates in a relevant context, and evolves into a Creole. Note that you need to provide what involve in pidginization and creolization.
A pidgin is simply a contact language that develops as a result of interactions between two or more language groups who wish to communicate and is usually never a native a language of any of the language groups. On other hand, a Creole is a pidgin that grows to become the first language of a community that results from interaction between various communities. Pidginization involves multifaceted progression of sociolinguistic alteration comprising the diminution in inner form, with meeting, in the context of limitation in use. Creolizaton on the other hand involves the expansion of a pidgin to the extent of those who use it bringing fourth children who use it as their first language. For example, in a scenario where two language groups have to trade, a pidgin to help them carry out their activities develops. If the activity that brings them together does not end, the pidgin expands and spreads. Courtesy of intermarriages, children born will learn the pidgin as their first language thus a Creole becomes.
