Schemes and Tropes
King uses many rhetorical devices in his speech. We will be studying many such devices in the course, beginning with the schemes and tropes listed below. These and other terms are listed in the Glossary, which you may access through the “Glossary” tab at the top of each page. The definitions will also be linked throughout.
Tropes
Recall from Module One that in the study of Rhetoric, tropes are any sort of figurative or evocative language. Here are two types of tropes Dr. King uses in his speech.
Allusion
Reference to another artistic work, person, place or idea well known to the audience in order to use its message or characteristics to illustrate the author’s message. For example, English speakers frequently allude to Shakespeare or the Bible.
“Until the latest of our world conflicts, the United States had no armaments industry. American makers of plowshares could, with time and as required, make swords as well.”
—Dwight D. Eisenhower, ‘Farewell Address to the Nation,’ January 17, 1961. Eisenhower warns against the “military-industrial complex.” The reference is to the Biblical prophets Isaiah and Joel; the latter urges the nations to beat their plowshares into swords (Isaiah 2:4; Joel 3:10). The phrase’s long Old-Testament history subtly reinforces the idea that a standing army is a relatively new innovation.
“Africa must rise and put on her yet unwoven garment. ‘Ethiopia shall stretch out her hand unto God.'”
—Frederick Douglass, ‘What to the Slave is the Fourth of July?’ (Online excerpt) Address to the Rochester Ladies’ Anti-Slavery Society, July 5, 1852. Here Douglass alludes to Psalm 68:31. This quote of a less well-known passage makes an appeal to authority with Douglass’ largely Christian audience, and an appeal to ethos by reminding them of his extensive knowledge of the text. (Full version: The Frederick Douglass Papers, Series Two: Autobiographical Writings; Volume 1 Narrative. Edited by John W. Blassingame, John R. McKivigan, and Peter P. Hinks; Textual editor, Gerald Fulkerson.)
Metaphor
The use of a word or phrase to symbolically represent another word or concept in order to highlight the similarities between them. Vivid images and apt analogies help capture an audience’s attention and imagination, but they can also make subtle suggestions.
“I assume unhesitatingly the leadership of this great army of our people dedicated to a disciplined attack upon our common problems.”
—Franklin D. Roosevelt, ‘Inaugural Address,’ March 4, 1933, likening overcoming the challenges of the Great Depression with fighting a war, with himself leading the people—his “army”—into battle. The martial metaphor suggests strength.
“This afternoon we gather in the quiet of this sanctuary to pay our last tribute of respect to these beautiful children of God. They entered the stage of history just a few years ago, and in the brief years that they were privileged to act on this mortal stage, they played their parts exceedingly well. Now the curtain falls; they move through the exit; the drama of their earthly life comes to a close.”
——Martin Luther King Jr., ‘Eulogy for the Martyred Children,’ given September 18, 1963 for the four young victims of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church Bombing in Birmingham, Alabama. King likens the lives of the young girls to an act on the “stage of history,” suggesting to his audience that, like parts in a play, human lives are ordained by God.
Schemes
As you continue your analysis, be aware of the different schemes–or variations on sentence structure–that are used throughout.
Parallelism
A pairing (or grouping of several) related words, phrases, or sentences with the same or similar grammatical structure.
“We can not dedicate — we can not consecrate — we can not hallow — this ground.”
—Abraham Lincoln, ‘Gettysburg Address,’ November 19, 1863
“Those who have been left out, we will try to bring in. Those left behind, we will help to catch up.”
—Richard Nixon, ‘Inaugural Address,’ January 20, 1969.
Anaphora
A form of parallelism, anaphora refers to the repetition of words at the beginning of successive clauses in a sentence. Such insistent repetition leds emphasis and builds momentum.
“We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender…”
—Winston Churchill, ‘We Shall Fight on the Beaches,’ June 4, 1940, House of Commons, arguing to Parliament and the British people that they must continue to confront the Nazi threat. []
“Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us. Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise proposals for the inspection and control of arms, and bring the absolute power to destroy other nations under the absolute control of all nations. Let both sides seek to invoke the wonders of science instead of its terrors … Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah to ‘undo the heavy burdens and let the oppressed go free.'”
—John F. Kennedy, ‘Inaugural Address,’ remarking on the Cold War, January 20, 1961.
Patterns of Sound
Writing for speaking means paying special attention to the sound, cadence, and rhythm of words and phrases. These elements can imbue feeling and create shades of meaning in language. Here are some techniques writers and speakers use for this purpose.
Alliteration
Repetition of consonant sounds, especially at the beginning of phrases.
“The vitality of language lies in its ability to limn the actual, imagined and possible lives of its speakers, readers, writers.”
—Toni Morrison, Nobel Lecture, 1993. The repetition of the “L” sound—”language,” “lies,” “limn,” and “lives” lends the sentence its music.
Assonance
Repetition of vowel sounds.
“Why is mob murder permitted by a Christian nation? What is the cause of this awful slaughter? This question is answered almost daily—always the same shameless falsehood that ‘Negroes are lynched to protect womanhood.'”
— Ida B. Wells, ‘Lynching Our National Crime, Address at the National Negro Conference,’ 1909. The “aw” sounds in “awful” and “slaughter” echo a cry of pain. And the long “a” sounds in “daily,” “same,” and “shameless” feel drawn-out and weary, lamenting the violence and injustice that has been perpetuated for so long.
Sibilance
The word “sibilant” comes from a Latin root meaning “hissing.” Sibilance refers to the repetition of sibilant consonant sounds, like “s,” “sh,” “z,” and “j.”
“They have something to say to us in their death. They have something to say to every minister of the Gospel who has remained silent behind the safe security of stained-glass windows. They have something to say to every politician who has fed his constituents the stale bread of hatred and the spoiled meat of racism.”
—Martin Luther King Jr., ‘Eulogy for the Martyred Children,’ 1963. Here, the pronounced sibilance hisses, snakelike, and sometimes even spits (when paired with the plosive consonants “p” and “t”), suggesting to the listeners everything that is sneering, subtle, sinister, sneaky, or sly.
Often, these different kinds of repetition work together to weave a pattern of sound:
“Courage, brothers! The battle for humanity is not lost or losing. All across the skies sit signs of promise. The slave is rising in his might, the yellow millions are tasting liberty, the black Africans are writhing toward the light, and everywhere the laborer, with ballot in his hand, is voting open the gates of opportunity and peace. The morning breaks over blood-stained hills. We must not falter, we may not shrink. Above are the everlasting stars.”
—W. E. B. Du Bois, ‘Niagara Movement Speech,’ Harpers Ferry, Virginia, August, 1906. Here, in the final moments of his speech, DuBois falls into a lyrical cadence, evoking the crescendo of an anthem or the climax of a sermon. Part of the effect comes from the song-like rhymes, like “might” and “light.” Also at work is the liquid sibilance of “All across the skies sit signs of promise. The slave is rising in his might,” which, together with the assonance of the repeated open, round vowels (“a” and “o”) and the long and short “i” sounds, creates a swirling cascade of sound, underlined by the drumbeat alliteration of “we must not … we may not” and “brothers … battle … black … ballot … breaks … blood.”
The following exercises are meant to give you practice crafting your own tropes, schemes, and patterns of sound. There are no right answers. The options are there for you to indicate for which type of trope, scheme, or pattern of sound for which you would like to invent an example. Once you enter your example, you will be able to see some responses from your peers.
You Give the Example: Tropes
Question
Choose a trope, and write your own example for it
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Allusion
Metaphor
Question
Choose a scheme and write your own example for it
Parallelism
Anaphora
Bottom of Form
Question
Choose a pattern of sound and write your own example for
Alliteration
Assonance
Silbilance
Bottom of Form
