Hypoxia
Hypoxia is caused by nutrient runoff from agricultural and other human undertakings in the watershed. As a result, the nutrients overstimulate the growth of fungi that sinks, consumes and decomposes oxygen deed to support life (NOAA, 2012). Usually, hypoxia intensifies closer to the Gulf floor as the decaying algae settle towards the bottom. In 2012 a team of NOAA- supported scientist surveyed the hypoxic area around the Gulf of Mexico. The oxygen-free ‘dead zone’ was found to be the fourth smallest since annual mapping started in the area. It covered a total area of 2,889 square miles as discussed in the article.
Also, the scientist reported on a patchy distribution of hypoxia that was not previously recorded. The scientist state that the previous year’s 6,770 mile ‘dead zone’ was as a result of the massive flood that raked in a lot of nutrients. The last time the hypoxia was as small as 2012 was in 2000 (NOAA, 2012). The dead zone measure about 1, 696 square miles. According to the team, the relatively small size of the deposited can be linked to the drought situation. Also, the nutrient deposits in the Gulf had tremendously dropped to its lowest in 80 years. According to Rabalais, Ph. D., executive director of the Louisiana University of Marine Consortium (LUMCON), what caught the researcher by surprise is the distribution of the hypoxia along the Gulf (NOAA, 2012). However this served as a learning opportunity as the researchers could confirm the strength of the relationship between the hypoxia size, amount of fresh water and nutrients carried to the Gulf by the Mississippi River.
Over the years the average dead zone for the previous five years is said to be 5, 684 square miles. The smallest and largest zones ever recorded range from 14 square miles to 8,400 square miles (NOAA, 2012). The dead zone is formed every summer. In an article written June 2012, NOAA-sponsored scientist projected the possible dead zone area to be between 1, 197 and 6, 213 square miles. The estimated area varied so much because of the models used to predict it. The larger area depended on the possible contribution of the deposits from the previous year algal broom to 2012’s hypoxia (NOAA, 2012). However, the scientists were able to confirm that the Gulf sediments contributed very minimally to the overall carbon content through the ‘carryover effect.’
Direct effects of hypoxia are visible through the death of fish which disrupts the stability of the ecosystem (EPA, 2017). Most mobile marine animals such as adult fish can escape the hypoxic environment. However, organisms with lesser mobility are profoundly affected (EPA, 2017). Some of the affected organisms include mussels and crabs. Ultimately, hypoxia causes a reduction of the marine life in the ‘dead zones’. Also, the event reduces the ability of younger shellfish and fish to find food thus affecting the growth cycle as they barely reach adulthood (EPA, 2017).
Formation of hypoxic zones is potentially disrupted a considerable number of industries in Texas and Louisiana (NOAA, 2012). These include commercial and recreational fisheries along the Gulf. Per 2012, the dockside value of commercial fishing is estimated to have been worth 639 million (NOAA, 2012). In 2010, recreational fishers were expected to have undertaken about 22 million fishing trips. Thus the gulf is a critical part of the economy, and the hypoxic zones are slowly threatening this.
In conclusion, hypoxia is caused by nutrient runoff through the Mississippi. The overgrowing algal blooms cause the lack of oxygen. In 2012, the dead zone was recorded in 2012 was the fourth smallest in a long time. The accumulation fell within the previously estimated range. The annual hypoxic deposit has both direct and indirect consequences by reducing marine life and the region’s economy.
References
EPA. (2017). Hypoxia 101: What is hypoxia and what causes it? Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/ms-htf/hypoxia-101
NOAA. (2012). NOAA scientists: Midwest drought brings fourth smallest Gulf of Mexico ‘Dead Zone’ since 1985. Retrieved from http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2012/20120727_midwestdrought.html
Black Contributions to US Culture
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Black Contributions to US Culture
It is hard to think of American music culture without associating it with the African American community. Given recent times, hip hop has become the primary genre of music expressing African American views. However, some artists are still keen on preserving the old blues, R&B, jazz, and soul sounds that once stood at the core of black music culture (Peretti, 2009). Emphasis on these genres overshadows other black influences like rock and roll, country. Additionally, not many artists of color became well known in in the said genres. Therefore, African Americans have made music that has an immense cultural impact on the US.
Original black music inspiration finds its roots in Africa. The first slaves brought into the country were from diverse cultural backgrounds. Each group had developed their sense of music and rhythm that later slowly fused and evolved due to their continued interactions on the plantations (Peretti, 2009). The cultivated sounds were soulful gospels and blues. Besides, they came up with bluegrass music that later came to be known as country music. Over time, the musicology enriched from the African inspiration while others got high jacked along the way. For example, nowadays, the typical image of country music is a white southerner with a cowboy hat and an acoustic guitar (Price, Kernodle, & Maxile, 2011). Therefore, African American music is grounded deep in the original traditions of the slaves.
The modern gospel sound can trace its roots in African American society. The influences span from the 1800 jubilee singers to the predominantly male gospel quartets and choirs of the 1930s. The main contribution however came in the 1920s from a former bluesman named “Georgia Tom” Dorsey (Peretti, 2009). He began composing religious songs with local lyrical quality and a highly modern blues sound. The bluesman is credited for the highly popularized song ‘precious lord’. Later on, the music grew giving black church music a rich soulful sound. Prominent gospel icons like James Cleveland and Shirley Caesar rose to fame due to their creative solos before choirs. Cleveland in particular was popular for his narrations of a redemption story either during or before the singing. This technique was called sermonizing (Price, Kernodle, & Maxile, 2011). Although current gospel songs have changed in terms of structure, it is important to recognize the retained elements like emphasis on establishment of vocals, lengthening and creation of dramatic power. Gospel music has also helped in development of other music genres by contributing noteworthy stars, such as Whitney Houston and Aretha Franklin, who started out in choirs (Breckenridge, 2014). Accordingly, the black community played a role on the establishment and of gospel music in the country.
Blues is one of the most versatile and universally known American music genres. Together with Jazz music, blues music is defined in the way it is performed with invaluable flexibility. Although the genre is almost entirely a product of slavery, some elements of the music can be traced to West Africa (Peretti, 2009). The music began in the south during servitude and later spread out over the length of the country by traveling musicians. Among the pioneer distributers of the music was Bunk Johnson who traveled all over the country playing blues in the late 1800s. Nationally, commercial blues was popularized by W.C Handy between 1912 and 1914 when he wrote two of the most popular blues hits of the time. These songs are ‘Memphis Blues’ and the ‘St Louis Blues’ respectively (Maultsby & Burnim, 2017). These songs are credited for driving Blues to its 1920s classical era. During this time, the music became global with figures such as Ma Rainey, Alberta Hunter and Bessie Smith at the forefront with sophisticated and beautiful performances (Price et al., 2011). Bessie Smith’s optimization of emotional power in the music perhaps made her the most classical blues singer. Later on, attention shifted from classic blues to country blues and later to urban blues after World War II. Chicago blues stood out the most of the urban blues. Thus, blues from African Americans flourished into an international phenomenon that was integrated as part of American musical cultural.
Jazz is described as ‘America’s classical music.’ It is the most complex and creative music produced by the country. Although no one can pin point its exact origin, the music encompasses blues musical flexibility and the musical traditions of the black New Orleans folk (Maultsby & Burnim, 2017). The first national and international jazz success was from Luis Armstrong in the 1920’s with his “West End Blues.” His influence led to the development of other Jazz music and big bands, some of which had popularity lasting over half a century. Later on, Bebop describe by music enthusiasts as the most revolutionary Jazz style, sprung up from a much smaller band. Bebop consisted of a piano rhythm section, strings, drums and occasionally a soloist on the trumpet backing the guitar. The style evolved as a result of the jam sessions held at Minton’s Playhouse and in Harlem (Price et al., 2011). Bebop set the standard for the following generations of Jazz Music. Freze jazz emerged in the 1970s from the improvising of bebop. Black influence on Jazz music made the music shape American culture
Although at the moment, the predominant art form of African American is hip hop, black folk have had other influential contributions to America culture. All black musical roots came from Africa during the slave era. In the plantations, their interactions led to the development of various musical genres among them country, gospel, soul, and jazz. Blues came from the farms in the south and spread all over the country. Globally the music gained recognition in the 1920s and became part of the American culture. Another contribution to US culture is Jazz. With New Orleans and blues influences, the genre grew to be a significant proportion of the country’s music. Thus, conclusively, black folk have had a major impact on American culture.
References
Floyd Jr, S. A. (1996). The power of black music: Interpreting its history from Africa to the United States. London: Oxford University Press.
Breckenridge, S. L. (2014). African American music for everyone: Including theater, film, and dance. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt
Top of Form
Maultsby, P. K., & Burnim, M. V. (2017). Issues in African American music: Power, gender, race, representation. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge
Bottom of Form
Peretti, B. W. (2009). Lift every voice: The history of African American music. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Price, E. G., Kernodle, T. L., & Maxile, H. J. (2011). Encyclopedia of African American music. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO.
