Essay Question I.
You were at the fitness center of Maxcy Hall, spending a lot of time sweating without going anywhere (= treadmill). You were very bored, so your mind wanders to your biology class and what is happening within your skeletal muscle tissue. Describe the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. Include a stepwise construction of a skeletal muscle from protein filaments to whole muscle, including connective tissues.
Essay Question II.
Why do we breathe? Explain at a cellular level. Describe the various structures used by animals to increase the surface area for diffusion. What are the two main respiratory pigments, how are they different, and provide an example of an animal group that uses each pigment? What cell type facilitates the diffusion of gases in the gills, lungs, and skin? Explain the principle of countercurrent flow and explain how fishes and birds have adapted this technique to enhance the uptake of oxygen from the environment.
Essay Question III.
The transport of internal fluids and cells is common in many animal groups. What is an open circulatory system and provide an example? What is a closed circulatory system and provide an example? What is the composition of human blood plasma? What is the structure and function of erythrocytes? What is the function of the agranular leucocytes and provide an example? What is the function of the granular leucocytes and provide two examples? Explain the importance of Macrophages and Helper T cells. Why are Plasma cells important to a robust immune response? Why are Memory B and T cells important to an effective and long-term immune response? Diagrams required!
Essay Question IV.
IV. With few exceptions, animals must spend energy to maintain osmotic balance and eliminate nitrogenous waste. Marine animals must drink salt water and rid the body of salts, freshwater organisms must rid the body of excess water from osmosis, and terrestrial animals must hold on to as much water as possible while eliminating nitrogenous wastes. For each of the following structures, describe its morphology and function, and provide an example of an animal group that uses the structure. State if the structure is primarily osmoregulatory or excretory for the following: Protonephridia, Metanephridia, Malpighian Tubules, and Mammalian Kidney (w/ nephron). For the latter, include an illustration of the nephron system and indicate what substances are transported (in and out) for each section. Include the role of urea to increase the passive transport of water back to the plasma. What is the role of ADH?
Essay Question V.
Why sex? What is the adaptive advantage for organisms that reproduce sexually? Charles Darwin suggested that the failure to reproduce is equivalent to death. What did he mean by this statement? What is Sexual Selection and how is it different from Natural Selection? Hermaphroditism is common among animal groups. What is the adaptive advantage of having both male and female gonads? Provide two examples of simultaneous hermaphroditism. What is protandry and when (habitat or lifestyle type) is this an adaptive advantage? Provide an example. What is protogyny and when is this an adaptive advantage? Provide an example. What human hormone determines whether a fetus will become phenotypically male or female? Describe the changes that occur in organs and other structures during development to birth.
