Study Guide
This guide is designed to help you to take notes in this course. Please note that information should be added to this study guide after finding the information in your A&P II with Lab (D313) learning resource. Thank you!
Section 1: Cardiovascular System
- The Cardiovascular System (Lessons 1–6)
- Lesson 1: Identify the structures of the heart.
- What is the role of the heart in the body? The heart’s role in the body is to pump blood and oxygen throughout the body, and remove waste products from the body’s tissues.
Where is it located? – The heart is located in the middle of the chest, slightly behind and to the left of the sternum and between the lungs.
- Describe the layers of the heart wall.
- Fibrous pericardium- The tough, outermost layer of the pericardium, a fibrous sac that encloses the heart and great vessels.
- Epicardium – It’s also knowns as the visceral pericardium and is part of the pericardium, a double layer of tissue that protects the heart.
- Myocardium – Cardiac muscle, makes up the thick middle layer of the heart’s walls, made up of cardiomyocytes.
- Endocardium – The innermost layer of tissue that lines the heart’s chambers and valves.
- Describe the chambers of the heart.
- Atria – The atria are the two upper chambers of the heart that receive blood from the body’s circulatory system. The Rt atrium receives blood from the venae cava of the systemic circulation, while the Lt atrium receives blood from the pulmonary circulation.
- Ventricles – The ventricles are the two lower chambers of the heart, one on the Rt and one on the Lt, that collect and pump blood out of the heart.
- Describe the valves of the heart.
- Pulmonary valve – A semilunar valve in the heart that controls the flow of deoxygenated blood from the Rt ventricle to the lungs. As deoxygenated blood leaves the Rt ventricle, it passes through the pulmonary heart valve, which has been closed as the Rt ventricle was filling.
- Aortic valve- A heart valve that’s located between the left ventricle and the aorta, near the middle of the heart. It’s also called the aortic semilunar valve because of its semilunar shape. To control blood flow into the aorta and prevent oxygenated blood from flowing back into the left ventricle.
- Atrioventricular valves-
- Lesson 2: Distinguish between the different types of arteries and veins with regard to their structural layers.
- Describe blood vessels.
- Artery
- Arterioles
- Capillaries
- Venules
- Veins
- How do elastic arteries, muscular arteries, and arterioles differ in structure and function?
- What is vasomotion?
- How does the structure of capillaries allow for exchange?
- Diffusion
- Bulk flow
- Transcytosis
- Active transport
- Describe blood vessels.
- Lesson 3: Identify the basic features of the systemic, pulmonary, portal, and fetal circulations.
- What is systemic circulation? Describe the structures involved.
- Aorta
- Iliac arteries
- What is coronary circulation? Describe the structures involved.
- Coronary arteries
- Ventricular grooves
- What is pulmonary circulation? Describe the structures involved.
- Pulmonary trunk
- Pulmonary arteries
- Pulmonary veins
- What is portal circulation? Describe the structures involved.
- Gastric, splenic, mesenteric, and gastroepiploic veins
- Hepatic veins
- Inferior vena cava
- What are the unique needs for fetal circulation?
- What is systemic circulation? Describe the structures involved.
- Lesson 4: Identify the arteries that supply the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis.
- Describe the parts of the aorta.
- Arch
- Ascending aorta
- Thoracic aorta
- Abdominal aorta
- Describe the superior and inferior vena cava.
- Describe the parts of the aorta.
- Lesson 5: Identify and label the arteries and veins that supply the head, neck, brain, and scalp.
- Describe the common carotid arteries.
- What is the purpose of the circle of Willis?
- Lesson 6: Identify the arteries and veins that supply the upper limbs (shoulder, arm, forearm, and hand) and the lower limbs (hip, thigh, leg, and foot).
- Describe the subclavian arteries.
- Describe the internal and external iliac arteries.
- Fibular or peroneal artery
- Femoral artery
- Describe the veins of the limbs.
- Heart Physiology (Lessons 7–8)
- Lesson 7: Identify the events of the cardiac cycle, the pressure changes that occur in the heart, and the state of the valves during each stage.
- Describe the events of the heartbeat.
- Right atrial systole
- Right ventricular systole
- Right atrial diastole
- Right ventricular diastole
- Left atrial systole
- Left ventricular systole
- Left atrial diastole
- Left ventricular diastole
- What is the timing of these events and how do they work to provide blood flow to the lungs and body?
- Describe how the events of the heartbeat match to an EKG (ECG).
- How is cardiac output calculated? What affects cardiac output?
- Describe the events of the heartbeat.
- Lesson 8: Explain the factors that affect arterial blood flow and blood pressure.
- Define blood flow.
- What is blood pressure? How does it change during the heartbeat?
- What contributes to changes in blood pressure?
- How is blood pressure controlled by the body?
- Lesson 7: Identify the events of the cardiac cycle, the pressure changes that occur in the heart, and the state of the valves during each stage.
- Blood in the Human Body (Lessons 9–11)
- Lesson 9: Identify the cellular and extracellular components of blood and state their functions.
- Describe the characteristics of blood.
- pH
- Volume
- Components
- What are the components of plasma?
- Describe the formed components of blood.
- Red blood cells
- White blood cells
- Platelets
- What are the steps of hemostasis?
- Describe the characteristics of blood.
- Lesson 10: Identify the main mechanism of carbon dioxide transport in the red blood cell.
- What is the role of the red blood cell?
- What is hemoglobin?
- Lesson 11: Explain the role of the white blood cells in protecting the body from disease.
- Describe granulocytes.
- Neutrophils
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
- Describe agranulocytes.
- Lymphocytes
- Monocytes
- Describe how the characteristics of red blood cells are used to identify blood types.
- ABO system
- Describe granulocytes.
- Lesson 9: Identify the cellular and extracellular components of blood and state their functions.
- Use the Section 1 lab to check your understanding of the learning objectives for Section 1. Review any areas as needed based on your lab results.
Section 2: Respiratory System
- The Respiratory System (Lessons 1–2)
- Lesson 1: Identify the major anatomy of the nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx.
- What are the functions of the respiratory system?
- Describe the structures of the upper respiratory system.
- Nasal cavity
- Paranasal sinuses
- Pharynx
- Lesson 2: Describe the flow of air from the larynx to the alveoli, identifying the structural differences in the airways that form the bronchial tree.
- Describe the structures of the lower respiratory system.
- Larynx
- Epiglottis
- Trachea
- Bronchi
- Bronchioles
- Alveolar sacs
- Alveoli
- How are the right and left lung different?
- What is the pleura?
- How does the respiratory system work to produce voice?
- Describe the structures of the lower respiratory system.
- Lesson 1: Identify the major anatomy of the nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx.
- Physiological Functions of the Respiratory System (Lessons 3–4)
- Lesson 3: Compare the three factors that affect pulmonary ventilation: airway resistance, lung compliance, and surface tension.
- What is pulmonary ventilation?
- What muscles are involved in breathing?
- Diaphragm
- Intercostals
- Describe Boyle’s law.
- What is airway resistance and how does it impact breathing?
- What is lung compliance and how does it impact breathing?
- What is surface tension and how does it impact breathing?
- What actions use the respiratory system, other than breathing?
- How is pulmonary volume and capacity measured?
- Lesson 4: Explain the regulation of respiration.
- What are the components of the alveoli?
- How do capillaries interact with alveoli?
- What is partial pressure and how does it affect respiratory gas exchange?
- Describe the function of the respiration center.
- Lesson 3: Compare the three factors that affect pulmonary ventilation: airway resistance, lung compliance, and surface tension.
- Use the Section 2 lab to check your understanding of the learning objectives for Section 2. Review any areas as needed based on your lab results.
Section 3: Metabolism and the Digestive System
- Nutrients and Organs of the Digestive System (Lessons 1–3)
- Lesson 1: Describe the components of macronutrients.
- List the macronutrients and common food sources.
- What are micronutrients?
- Lesson 2: Identify the vitamins and the role they play in normal metabolic activities.
- Describe fat soluble versus water soluble vitamins.
- What is the function of vitamins? Give examples.
- What is the function of minerals? Give examples.
- Lesson 3: Identify the major organs and functions of the digestive system.
- Describe the components of the digestive system.
- Oral cavity
- Pharynx
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small intestine
- Large intestine
- What are the accessory organs?
- Define the functions of the digestive system
- Ingestion
- Mastication
- Digestion
- Secretion
- Absorption
- Compaction
- Defecation
- Describe the components of the digestive system.
- Lesson 1: Describe the components of macronutrients.
- Digestive System Organs and Tissue (Lessons 4–8)
- Lesson 4: Identify the borders of the oral cavity, the three regions of the pharynx, and associated musculature.
- What structures make up the oral cavity?
- Describe the location and role of the salivary glands.
- Differentiate deciduous and permanent teeth.
- What are the three regions of the pharynx?
- What is the function of the esophagus?
- How do the oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus work together to swallow?
- Lesson 5: Identify the regions and processes of mechanical and chemical digestion that occur in the stomach.
- What are the functions of the stomach?
- Describe how the layers of the stomach wall allow it to fulfill its function.
- Lesson 6: Identify the regions and processes of mechanical and chemical digestion that occur in the small intestine.
- Describe the regions of the small intestine.
- Describe how the layers of the small intestine wall allow it to fulfill its function.
- Lesson 7: Identify the regions and processes of mechanical and chemical digestion that occur in the large intestine.
- Describe the parts of the large intestine.
- Describe how the layers of the large intestine wall allow it to fulfill its function.
- What is the peritoneum?
- Lesson 8: Identify the anatomical features and processes of the accessory organs.
- What are the functions of the pancreas?
- What are the functions of the liver?
- What are the functions of the gallbladder?
- How does the biliary tree work to connect accessory organs to the digestive system?
- Lesson 4: Identify the borders of the oral cavity, the three regions of the pharynx, and associated musculature.
- Using the Food People Eat (Lessons 9–10)
- Lesson 9: Describe the process of the metabolism of carbohydrates.
- How are carbohydrates digested and absorbed in the different parts of the digestive system?
- Lesson10: Describe the process of the metabolism proteins.
- How are proteins digested and absorbed in the different parts of the digestive system?
- Lesson 11: Describe the process of the metabolism of fats.
- How are fats digested and absorbed in the different parts of the digestive system?
- Lesson 12: Explain the regulation processes of the digestive system.
- How do hormones regulate digestive activities?
- Describe the phases of digestion.
- Cephalic
- Gastric
- Intestinal
- Lesson 9: Describe the process of the metabolism of carbohydrates.
- Use the Section 3 lab to check your understanding of the learning objectives for Section 3. Review any areas as needed based on your lab results.
Section 4: Urinary System
- Structures and Function of the Urinary System (Lessons 1–3)
- Lesson 1: Identify the structure of the kidneys.
- Describe the external layers of the kidney.
- Renal capsule
- Adipose capsule
- Renal fascia
- Describe the internal anatomy of the kidney.
- Renal cortex
- Renal medulla
- Renal calyces
- Renal pelvis
- Describe how the nephron allows the kidney to function to filter blood.
- Renal corpuscula
- Glomerulus
- Renal tubule
- Proximal convoluted tubule
- Loop of Henle
- Distal convoluted tubule
- Describe the external layers of the kidney.
- Lesson 2: Identify the processes involved in the evaluation of kidney function.
- What substances can be measured in urine output to determine whether there is disease?
- Lesson 3: Describe the flow of urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder, where it is stored until its eventual removal from the body through the process of micturition.
- Describe the location and function of the ureters.
- Describe the location of the bladder in females and males.
- How does the urethra differ in females and males?
- How is micturition controlled through voluntary and involuntary responses?
- Lesson 1: Identify the structure of the kidneys.
- Formation and Regulation of the Urinary System (Lessons 4–5)
- Lesson 4: Identify the functions of the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule, and the collecting ducts in the process of urine formation.
- Describe how filtration, secretion, and reabsorption occur in the parts of the nephron.
- Glomerulus
- Proximal convoluted tubule
- Loop of Henle
- Distal convoluted tubule
- Describe how filtration, secretion, and reabsorption occur in the parts of the nephron.
- Lesson 5: Explain the process of producing normal, diluted, or concentrated urine.
- What factors control glomerular filtration rates?
- How can reabsorption and secretion rates be controlled?
- What factors contribute to the formation of concentrated or dilute urine?
- Lesson 4: Identify the functions of the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule, and the collecting ducts in the process of urine formation.
- Use the Section 4 lab to check your understanding of the learning objectives for Section 4. Review any areas as needed based on your lab results.
Section 5: Reproductive System and Development
- Male Anatomy and Function (Lessons 1–2)
- Lesson 1: Identify the anatomy of the testes and the role of hormones produced in the development of the male reproductive function.
- Describe the function of the parts of the testes.
- Seminiferous tubules
- Epididymis
- Describe the structure and function of spermatozoa.
- What hormones play a role in the development of spermatozoa and sexual characteristics?
- Describe the function of the parts of the testes.
- Lesson 2: Identify the structures associated with the male reproductive tract.
- Describe the role of the male reproductive ducts.
- Epididymis
- Ductos deferens
- Ejaculatory ducts
- Urethra
- Describe the glands of the male reproductive system.
- Seminal vesicles
- Prostate
- Bulbourethral glands
- What are the components of semen?
- How is temperature of the testes controlled?
- Compare the stages of sexual excitement in males and females.
- Describe the role of the male reproductive ducts.
- Lesson 1: Identify the anatomy of the testes and the role of hormones produced in the development of the male reproductive function.
- Female Anatomy and Function (Lessons 3–5)
- Lesson 3: Identify the anatomy of ovaries and the role of hormones produced in the development of the female reproductive function.
- Describe the anatomy of the ovaries and follicles.
- Describe the process of oogenesis.
- Describe the role of estrogens.
- Lesson 4: Identify the structures associated with the female reproductive tract.
- Describe the structures of the female reproductive tract.
- Ovaries
- Uterine tubes
- Uterus
- Vagina
- Describe the external genitalia in females.
- Describe the structure and function of the mammary glands.
- Compare the stages of sexual excitement in males and females.
- Describe the structures of the female reproductive tract.
- Lesson 5: Describe the phases of the ovarian and uterine cycle.
- What is the role of hormones in the reproductive cycle?
- GnRH
- FSH
- LH
- Estrogen
- Progesterone
- Inhibin
- Describe the phases of the ovarian cycle.
- Follicular phase
- Ovulation
- Luteal phase
- Describe the phases of the uterine cycle.
- Menstrual
- Preovulatory
- Ovulation
- Postovulatory
- Describe how the ovarian and uterine cycle complement each other.
- What is the role of hormones in the reproductive cycle?
- Lesson 3: Identify the anatomy of ovaries and the role of hormones produced in the development of the female reproductive function.
- Use the Section 5 lab to check your understanding of the learning objectives for Section 5. Review any areas as needed based on your lab results.
Section 6: Lymphatic System
- Organs, Tissues, Vessels, and Circulation of the Lymphatic System (Lessons 1–2)
- Lesson 1: Identify the structures, functions, and locations of the major lymphatic organs.
- Describe the origin of T and B cells.
- What is the role of the thymus gland?
- What are lymph nodes?
- What is the role of the spleen?
- What is diffuse lymphatic tissue?
- Lesson 2: Identify the mechanisms that cause the movement of lymph through the lymph vessels.
- Describe the role of lymphatic capillaries and lymphatic vessels.
- How do lymphatic ducts drain?
- How is lymph fluid circulated?
- Lesson 1: Identify the structures, functions, and locations of the major lymphatic organs.
- Immunity and Immune System (Lessons 3–4)
- Lesson 3: Describe the different aspects of a body’s innate immunity.
- Describe the cells of the innate immune system.
- Neutrophils
- Macrophages
- Monocytes
- Granular leukocytes
- Lymphocytes
- What is the role of skin and mucous membranes in immunity?
- What is the role of natural killer cells?
- How do interferons function to provide immunity?
- How does the complement system work to provide immunity?
- What are the stages of inflammation?
- How does fever work to provide protection?
- Describe the cells of the innate immune system.
- Lesson 4: Describe the different aspects of a body’s adaptive immunity.
- Describe the cells of the acquired immune system.
- B cells
- T cells
- Natural killer cells
- Antigen presentation cells
- What is clonal selection?
- What are antigens?
- What is the major histocompatibility complex?
- How does HIV affect the immune system?
- Describe the cells of the acquired immune system.
- Lesson 3: Describe the different aspects of a body’s innate immunity.
- Use the Section 6 lab to check your understanding of the learning objectives for Section 6. Review any areas as needed based on your lab results.
Objective Assessment
- Pre-Assessment:
- Review your notes.
- Take the pre-assessment. If you are above competency, schedule the objective assessment. Otherwise, connect with your instructor to review your coaching report.
- Objective Assessment:
- Review your notes.
- Take the objective assessment.
