Communication with Children
Introduction
Communication is a bipartite process of arriving at a common understanding between two or more parties (Jensen et al. 2016; Sergy 2017). Nemzoff (2008) notes that during the process, the participators not only exchange information, ideas, news, and even their feelings, but they also develop and share meaning too. Communication is the sending and receiving information between persons. According to Fiske (2010), the sender is the person who encodes and passes a message while the receiver is the individual receiving and decoding the information. The information passed along include facts, concepts, ideas, beliefs, opinions, instructions, attitudes, and emotions (Fiske, 2010). While Samuelsson (2014) suggests that communication is a medium of linking or connecting persons or places, Locker and Kienzler (2013) highlight that in other aspects of life such as business, communication is a primary function in management. Moreover, Holm (2006) emphasises that operations cannot take place in an organisation without communication between the different organisational levels or, between the employees and various departments within the corporation. Therefore, it suffices to say that communication is the only thing behind successful completion of any tasks that require more than one individual (Konijn et al. 2008).
Types of Communication
The various methods of communication include verbal communication, written communication, and non-verbal communication (the use of body language) (Lunenburg 2010; Jeynes 2007). Verbal conversation entails the sending of messages using a spoken language, which both parties understand (Lnenburg 2010). For instance, a face-to-face conversation, listening to a program on the radio or television or even listening to a lecturer in a class is verbal communication (Li 2006). While Papathanasiou, Coppens and Potagas (2016); Bernstein and Tiegerman (2009) describe written communication as conveying information using different symbols, which both participants in the conversation understand far too well, Schmeltz (2012) posits that non-verbal communication is the use of body language in sending information from the sender of the message to the receiver of the same. For example, often one can tell when their bosses are either upset or happy by looking at their facial expressions or when they make gestures or postures. Aptly, embarrassment could be indicated by a flushed facial expression, while clenching of the fists could show rage.
Communication with Children
According to Hyde and Punch (2011), an active conversation with a young child helps him or her to develop a feeling of self-worth, confidence, and good relation with others. Positive communication with children is essential as it makes life with them easier by allowing them to understand their environment, grow, and build social relations (Chai et al. 2011; Koegel & Kern 2006). Relevantly, actual conversation with children centres respects for them. Communication involves both speaking and careful listening, both of which are necessary for the process. Often, in the process of communication, it is always about what people say and how they express it (McCann 2007). As such, positive communication results in the nurture of positive relations and peaceful cooperation from the participants crowned by a high sense of self-worth. However, as McCann (2007) asserts, poor communication with the kids may lead to annoyance, quarrels about petty things, conflicting opinions and feelings of worthlessness. Nevertheless, adults- including parents and the teachers sometimes encounter challenges while trying to communicate positively with children especially when considering associated emotions during communication, either their feelings or children’s feelings (Hyde & Punch 2011)
Concerning the key determinants of how children develop their skills in communication, anything that minifies the parents’ ability to bond and communicate with their toddlers or children may affect children’s language, ability to develop normal speech and excellent communication skills in general. If adults, particularly parents, are to acknowledge their children, all they need is to develop emotion and relate with them (Coombs & Holladay 2011). However, different inequalities or even health issues can affect this emotional availability. Further, by not speaking English as a first language or any standard language based on the setting, in itself, it is not a risk associated with normal speech development and proper skills in communication (Coombs & Holladay 2011). Children who establish themselves with the right communication skills through any other language are often able to transfer the acquired abilities to different languages. Similarly, children who live in bilingual homes often find learning new languages easy (Valkenburg & Peter 2007).
Koegel and Kern (2006) reports that communication support needs, including sensory impairments and learning disability, play a part in determining how children develop their skills in communication. Parents and other adults, including the teachers with communication support needs are often less able to get in touch with relevant information and additional supports that may help with their children’s development of communication skills (Koegel and Kern 2006). Other physical health-related factors like the frequency of catarrhal colds ought to be factored in. For instance, repeated, undiagnosed, progressive, conductive hearing loss as a result of Eustachian tube blockage leads to a delay in the development of healthy communication. Additionally, frequent admissions to hospitals or, frequent ailing leaves the child unwell and too tired to develop and learn fast enough (Koegel and Kern 2006). Poor communication skills development can be indicated by the parent’s concern on how the child speaks or communicate.
Therefore, it is crucial that the persons the toddlers or children interact with in their young age talk to them as soon as possible. This aspect is important as it would give children an opportunity to be familiar with the sounds of speech (Fiske 2010). They would from an early age begin to learn word-language patterns while properly developing appropriate communication skills. Fiske (2010) notes that the development of a child’s language and speech is directly affected by how much is spoken to the child and the much the child can hear. Even so, children are still able to communicate what they feel and need even before they can be able to utter a word. They are always able to give a response to what is happening around them. An adult’s response to these many cues is foundational to their future communication. Children build a connection to these signals in their brains. When speech emerges, adults- particularly the parents can support the development of communication skills for children, by positively, sensitively, and consistently responding to them (Schmeltz 2012). The parents can do this by playing or reading together with children. The department of education in England carried out a longitudinal study in 2011 whose objective was to find out the role language plays in the outcome of children’s early education. As Jensen (2016) records based on the findings of this research, at two years, language development predicts the performance of children when they enter primary school.
Case Setting
There are 15 children in the classroom. The tables and chairs are put all together (in one place) so that when children are carrying out their usual activities, they can communicate across the table. Parents or caretakers drop the children at the nursery at around 8:30 am every morning on weekdays. After saying goodbye to their parents or caregivers, they go straight to the practitioners. In the daily routine, there is phonics time when all the children revise phonics and complete the tasks. During planning time, children make decisions and choices on where to carry out their activities in the nursery while the nursery officers encourage and supports them. The children perform the activities they plan during work time. Tidy up time is the period when the children clean off what they have been working with before they enter the snack and recall time. Small group time is the period when the children do what has been planned for them by the nursery officers. During the time for outside play, the kids go out to investigate and explore the learning environment outside class as they develop knowledge and skills about the world in which they live. It also helps them attain physical skills. After this, they break for lunch. Circle time is the period when the kids and the nursery officers meet to sing songs, perform action rhymes, tell stories and exchange news. These are some of the activities carried out by the children, assisted by the nursery officers.
Aspects of Communication with Children
Body Language Communication
The use of body language pertains the use of conscious or unconscious nonverbal cues in communication (Birdwhistell 2010). It is helpful in sending the right messages across to other persons. According to Birdwhistell (2010), body language communication involves the use of nonverbal cues such as gestures and postures just to mention a few. While Bradford and Rickwood (2015) posit that body language communication gets one’s most basic needs or wants to be known by the people around them, Noordenbos et al. (2012) suggest that for many children, body language communication stays to emerge in the initial years of life, with the use of gestures as the very first form of non-verbal cues. This aspect of communication is expanded on, later on, with the use of words and the use of simple or long sentences in the connection of people. However, for the children with delays in language and speech development, the use of words and sentences takes place much later while those with significantly severe impairment in language and speech taking too long (Stephens et al. 2017).
Birdwhistell (2010) notes that the children who struggle to ensure that their basic needs are met by communicating about their wants to other individuals are the ones who mostly apply the use of body language in their communication. These are usually the children who do not speak yet or the ones who just lack enough words to send their messages across. In some cases, a child could produce speech poorly such that as much as they try to speak, no one understands what he or she is saying. According to Meir and Armon-Lotem (2017), such are the kids whom body language communication matters to most as by using non-verbal cues, these children decrease frustrations and disappointment as the use of body language in their communication become the alternative way to communicate effectively.
For instance, my observation surrounded Peter, a 4 year-old with autistic sysndrome. Peter finds it hard to communicate with Tamara. His condition makes it difficult to express to her that he wanted them to play using his small car. When she mentions that she has two big buckets at home and a big car, he expresses his frustration using strong body postures with defending body position, crossed arms and looking down. Peter rarely talks and uses his actions to pass messages to Tamara. He only talks to her when he feels she has not understood what he wants. His challenges to communicate puts off Tamara, which in turn disrupts their play.
In everyday life, people use a combination of spoken word with the use of body language such as gestures, to communicate with each other (Noordenbos et al. 2012). Verbal communication, written communication, and nonverbal communication are primarily the means of communication among people in the world. Children with substantive speech or language delay such as those with autistic syndrome could have trouble with producing speech in the case where other means of communication come in handy (Noordenbos et al. 2012). Thus, body language communication remains the most appropriate alternative. In the event of the delays in speech and language development, the chief focus is offering the children with alternative means of communication regardless of what is at hand. Adult figures around such children should guide them and help them develop their body language. The primary key in all this is beginning somewhere, as a child’s communication is progressively refined to a more complex system or various ways of communication (Meir & Armon-Lotem 2017).
Bradford and Rickwood (2015) note that the children can use body language and gestures to send messages about what they want or messages about how they feel. By using gestures, a child can point to or reaching an object that he or she badly desires. On the same note, a child can use gestures to lead an adult figure around them to what he or she wants at a particular time. Moreover, using body language communication, a child can send a message of displeasure when he or she is upset or displeased with a particular thing in his or her life by slumping or frowning (Bradford and Rickwood 2015). The same child is capable of communicating happiness by smiling or by laughing when impressed by a particular thing. The use of gestures and body language is the very foundational form of communication. As an essential form of communication, it should be recommended for the children with delayed or impaired speech or language development, such that they do not feel like they are pushed to the wall or are trapped beneath the surface with no means of communication at all cost (Bradford & Rickwood 2015).
Moreover, Stephens et al. (2017) also highlight that, children who are unable to speak often use simple sign languages in their conversation, in passing across messages about what they want or need. However, the use of signs need be taught to all children and also to the adult figures who are going to communicate with them. Even though in the parenting world there is too much confusion regarding the use of sign languages with children, learning about the use of sign language in communication is beneficial not only to the children who cannot produce speech but also even those who can. The use of other means of communication such as gestures and other signs does not at all hinder the children with disability (like Peter- the child in my observation with autistic syndrome) in development from producing speech since it supports their ability to talk. Again, the use of body and sign language helps the children who are older to learn how to communicate as much as the younger children do (Stephens et al. 2017).
Additionally, these alternative means of communication enable the children to make a significant improvement on their intelligence (cognition). Thus, the teaching of sign language does help the children to develop language skills, and it does not whatsoever prevent them from talking or speaking (Lindblom 2017). When the children use sign languages, it surely does assist them to make better their communication systems even before their speaking. Body and sign language gives the children a head start on connection till their speech system can come along. For those children who have delays in language and speech or impairment of both, the use of sign language allows them to start communication even before they can produce any sound (Lindblom 2017). For some other children, body and sign language both act as a boost that is much needed by them to start speaking, often the case for the children with autism like Peter. By using sign language in their communication, the children obtain the maximum power to communicate often becoming more motivated to engage in conversations. Teaching the kids body and sign language is not stressful, nor is it difficult: It begins with the adult figure getting to learn the new gestures and signs making time to start working them into his or her daily routine (Lindblom 2017).
Video modelling is an approach used in teaching children with delayed or impaired speech or language development. This strategy teaches the children how to perform new skills or basically how to get along in different social situations (Birdwhistell 2010). Again, the children with delayed or impaired speech or language development have challenging behaviours because these kids know very well that they need to communicate with the people around them even though they are not able to do so as efficiently as they would like to. Sometimes, this leads to disappointments and frustrations as they make an effort to communicate effectively, but they are not understood. Birdwhistell (2010) notes that these disappointments often lead to melting down and tantrums, particularly for the very young ones with no strategy to cope. For these particular children, the only way to help them is first to determine what leads to their behaviour. Secondly, the action of the children (behaviour) need be determined. Thirdly, the consequence of the same is determined as well (Birdwhistell 2010).
Analysis of why this particular behaviour is done before an intervention is sought. The intervention here is another behaviour that could comfortably replace, which is then taught to give the children an appropriate way of communication (Birdwhistell 2010). Another solution could entail the change of surrounding to minimise the occurrence of the behaviour. An environment could exacerbate a particular reaction from occurring. A change of environment makes the previous behaviour to be less active. Challenging behaviours in the classroom, for example, can be dealt with by applying both measures of reinforcement and penalties. Positive actions can be reinforced with the aim of replacing the old challenging behaviours while penalties could be enforced against the inappropriate behaviour as pertains communication (Birdwhistell 2010).
Recommendation
As Birdwhistell (2010) suggests, to assist the children in learning signs for basic words to use in their day to day communication, choose the body and sign language to use frequently with the child. Not every word is supposed to be signed when speaking; a selection of words should be chosen. The words selected should be those that are familiar to children who are typically developing. These are the words that are easier for the children to learn. The words could include nouns like cat, dog, table bed, car, etc. they also could include social words like stop, no, away, all done, more, that, this, again, your, my, etc. besides, the words could also include action words like up, go, down, throw, eat, open, sit, help, put, get among many others. They also could be descriptors like big, in, on, there, here, dry, wet, clean, dirty or little (Birdwhistell 2010).
Further, practice on the body and sign language signs for the selected words and then use hem during the conversations with the children. Often the children take time before they completely learn but the sooner the signing begins, the better and, the quicker they will learn (Birdwhistell 2010). After signing to the children for some time, you can now start to help them sign back to you. It is recommended that this begins after the children are ten months of age and above. This is the time when the children’s motor skills are probably at best to accommodate signs. For instance, when providing a child with something, hold it up and do not give it to him or her yet. Ask the child what he or she wants and wait for a response (a spoken word or gesture) while watching for any imitation. If the child does not do any of the two (speech or gesture), take his or her hand and assist him or her to make a sign or gesture and then almost immediately offer them the thing they needed just like they had said it (Birdwhistell 2010). Repeating this eventually ends up in the child beginning to mimic the signs on his or her own requiring no assistance.
Speech Communication
The rationale behind choosing this aspect of communication is that as Hakvoort (2016) notes, speech or language communication is one of the many ways by which humanity communicates. Hakvoort (2016) notes that the acquisition of skills in communication and the development of language and speech are processes that are gradual in nature and children develop these skills differently and at different rates. According to Svärdemo and Insulander (2017), beyond the age of eight, usually, children use language in drawing and predicting conclusions about everything happening around them. At the age of eight, a child can use both complex and long sentences in their conversations with people. At this age, he or she can understand another person’s point of view and also able to indicate that he or she is agreeing or disagreeing with the other participant in the conversation. An eight-year-old child is capable of understanding words that are comparative in nature and also capable of keeping conversations going while giving reasons and better explaining his or her choices on the main issues in their lives. At this age, the child is also able to begin and end conversations with people who are strangers to him or her. Additionally, a child of his age is capable of using and understanding passive sentences (Svärdemo & Insulander 2017).
If in any case a child tries to speak early in his or her life but, he or she cannot be heard in one way or the other perhaps due to significant errors in speech, to ensure that the child achieves functionality in his or her communication, most definitely, the errors in the child’s speech sounds should be worked on (Le et al. 2007). Even so, it suffices to say that the journey of learning speech and language is lifelong, but then the bulk of it all is in the initial years of child development. Serniclaes and Sprenger (2015) notes that the development of the human brain is always quite rapid in the very first five years of human life. It is during this time when children are more open to different learning experiences, are equally receptive to the various experiences that are quite enriching, more than any other time in the growth, and learn about both speech and language skills by taking part in interactions with adult figures in their lives (Serniclaes and Sprenger 2015). Moreover, they send different messages, whether by using gestures, sounds or words. Relevantly so, the response of their parents or caretakers or the response of the adult figure around them often serves as an assistive feedback that reinforces and encourages the learning process of the children in acquiring these communication skills. On the other hand, the children who communicate less than their peers too, are usually unlikely to get back much of the necessary feedback from the adult figures around them. Since these kids rarely speak, because of their silence, it is usually natural that the adult figure around them would likely communicate less with them. As such, they do not get enough assistive input that is required of them in building upon their speech, language and essential communication skills (Noordenbos & Serniclaes 2015).
In this case, as Steve and Peter converse, they rely on the input of their practitioner to continue their conversation. Peter and Steve’s conversation starts on a slow note until the practitioner contributes to the conversation. Although Peter has Autistic syndrome, he manages to communicate fast enough in a series of questions and answers when the practitioner helps affirm his answers. He develops self-confidence and provides answers without feeling that they may be false.
Hakvoort et al. (2016) highlight that as the child grows, it is always crucial not to ignore important signs that development process of a child’s communication is being delayed. In most cases, caregivers are advised that children often grow out of these delays in acquiring speech and language skills thus, in case they notice these delays, the parents should wait and watch for the moment when the children will catch up with the rate at which children who are growing normally are acquiring the relevant communication skills (Serniclaes & Sprenger 2015). In learning speech and language, this is a critical period even though the wait and see method is often detrimental and rather disturbing to the parents in particular. The children with delayed speech or language cannot always fully participate in conversations and activities, often falling behind in their interactions and academics when the necessary aid is not provided to them. It is this essential help that they need most during these times, nothing else. When these children are supported by the close adults around them, such as their parents, these kids make substantial gains. Interventions with therapy of their speech are critically crucial for them to be able to develop the necessary communication skills, critical for their future success in personal lives, especially in academics (Svärdemo & Insulander 2017).
The factors that may lead to delayed speech and language development, like in the case of Peter, include disorders in the development of expression and language, hearing loss, disability in cognitive (intellectual) function, prematurity, disorders in auditory processing, autism, neurological disorders such as traumatic brain injury, muscular dystrophy and cerebral palsy, speech apraxia, and selective mutism (Snowling and Melby 2016). Snowling and Melby (2016) posit that delays in speech and language development can be signified by the child not capable of babbling like other kids of the same age who can use similar number and variety of sounds. A very young child (toddler) or even that who has entered preschool who is often slower in using words, such as Peter is a child with delayed speech and language development (Binger et al. 2010). Often these kids take very long to use full sentences in their conversations. Such children should receive assistance early in their initial years of life. Thus, it is extremely significant to note and recognise the signs of these delays. There are special milestones in the communication process, which any child is expected to reach by a certain age. Hence, the children who miss even one of these milestones may require extra boosts to catch up (Snowling & Melby 2016).
Le et al. (2007) note that the warning signs that could indicate delays or impairment in speech or language development include, if a child cannot be able to babble with tone changes by twelve months of age or if the child cannot use simple gestures like waving a ‘bye’. At twelve months of age, if the child cannot even shake his or her head to signify a ‘no’, it is indicative of speech and language delays. Additionally, if the child cannot respond to a mention of his or her name or if the child cannot communicate to the caregiver for instance the parent when he or she badly wants something or attention (Le et al. 2007). By 15 months, if the child cannot be able to respond using simple words like ‘yes’ or if the child can still not be able to mention a name, it becomes apparent that there is a delay in the child’s speech and language development. Besides, if the child makes no point to different objects when he or she is asked to or if the child cannot be able to ask his or her parents to have a glance at particular things that may interest them, it is indicative of delays in speech and language development (Le et al. 2007).
Moreover, at 18 months, if the child does not understand simple commands like ‘look here’ or if they are not able to use less than twenty single words such as, ‘daddy’ or ‘mommy’ or, if they do not respond with using words or body cues, it suggests a problem in the development of speech and language of the children (Le et al. 2007). Besides, if a child cannot point to more than two body parts like the head, it is a sign of the underlying problem. Further, at 24 months, if the child cannot say less than a hundred words or, if the child is not consistently joining more hat two words such as ‘mommy go; or, if the child cannot be able to mimic actions or words, it is suggestive of the delay in speech and language development. Besides, by 30 months of age, if the child cannot say fewer than three hundred words or if the child is still not able to use simple words like ‘run’ or not able to perform the action or, if the child is not capable of using some mature grammar, this signifies delays or impairment in speech or language development in the child. Lastly, by the age of three or four, if the child is not capable of asking questions or telling a story, it is a sign of delays in speech (Le et al. 2007).
Recommendations
Parents and caretakers have the primary role of intervening when they note delays in speech or language development of a child. The importance of early intervention is that the children who get these therapy interventions early enough in their lives often have the best results in their progress of acquiring necessary communication skills. Most children do not learn how to communicate by being taught the necessary communication skills by their parents. They learn how to communicate by taking part in the everyday activities and conversations with their caregivers, parents or other adult figures around them. Therefore, practitioners, teachers, parents, and other adult figures should help children like Peter to develop their speech through involving them in activities that test their knowledge of common words.
Conclusion
Having the capacity to communicate effectively is a great skill especially for children in their early years. The early one gets at it the better his or her quality of communication, and in turn, life becomes. Greenhow and Robelia (2009) note that communication starts from the moment a child is born, with the first cry as a way of letting everybody know that a child has arrived. With progressive development of the child, his or her communication skills are nurtured such that his or her ability of self-expression is evident and that they are confident in all aspects of his or her life. Considering the stages of children’s development, their first contact of communication is their parents, their caretakers, siblings, friends, other adults, and when starting their education journey, they communicate with their teachers and fellow pupils. Children learn or acquire communication skills by listening to an adult figure around them; their parents. Children mimic the words and actions of the individuals they listen to or look up to. Thus, the more a child is communicated to, the quicker and earlier he or she gets to acquire these skills of communication (Rider & Keefer 2006).
According to Shayne (2008), different activities help children improve on their communication skill. For instance, reading enables children to improve their proficiency in communication, it helps in the developmental process of language acquisition and also introduces children to lots of vocabularies assisting children communicate with clarity, making their communication easy. As children grow, when the parents read together with their children, or when they engage with their teachers and classmates in school, it offers a perfect opportunity to discuss thus creating an atmosphere where children can be confidently and comfortably articulate and share their opinions. Playing and interacting with siblings and friends in school plays a part in the development of children’s social skills alongside communication skills. These skills make children feel comfortable in social conditions because it is easier for them to stir up conversations with other people, thus good relations (Perkins & Pfaffman 2006). Further, these relationships will shape up their listening skills and their capacity to interpret body language communication cues.
When a child enters school, the activities in school including class presentations, dramatisations, class discussions and oral examinations become regular activities for him or her (Shayne 2008). All these activities call for the child’s skills in verbal communication. Marzano, Waters and McNulty (2005) suggest that these activities function in honing the skills of communication of the child enabling them to feel confident when conveying messages in social situations. Children who are good at verbal communication often find it easier to communicate in the written form thus, are likely to perform well in school. Moreover, just like any other skill, communication skills can be developed, and with practice, they can be refined. Helping children develop good communication skills from their junior years is a way of equipping children with skills for a bright future.
Regarding speech communication, it is significant to listen attentively for the realisation of efficient communication with children. There is a communication breakdown when there is a failure of attentive listening. In the adult-child communication relationship, children need to feel a sense of confidence, relaxation, and security when they are they are amidst a person they believe they have a good rapport with. The important thing the adult figure around children can do is to talk and listen to them. This fosters the adult-child relationship which aids the child to learn about himself or herself and about the world that surrounds them. On the other hand, concerning the aspect of encouraging and supporting children using kind words and actions, children learn more about excellent communication skills more effectively in the presence of an individual who seems kind to them. They build a good relationship with the person starting by trusting them. In the presence of such a person, children feel that they are accepted and that they are valued and so will be their opinions when they open up. In summary, communication connects individuals who get to share ideas and gain information about one another thus building upon great relationships.
Bibliography
Bernstein, D.K. and Tiegerman-Farber, E., 2009. Language and communication disorders in children. Pearson College Division.
Binger, C., Kent-Walsh, J., Ewing, C. and Taylor, S., 2010. Teaching educational assistants to facilitate the multisymbol message productions of young students who require augmentative and alternative communication. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 19(2), pp.108-120.
Birdwhistell, R.L., 2010. Kinesics and context: Essays on body motion communication. University of Pennsylvania press.
Blanchard, V.L., Hawkins, A.J., Baldwin, S.A. and Fawcett, E.B., 2009. Investigating the effects of marriage and relationship education on couples’ communication skills: a meta-analytic study. Journal of Family Psychology, 23(2), pp. 203-214
Bradford, S. and Rickwood, D., 2015. Young people’s views on electronic mental health assessment: Prefer to type than talk? Journal of child and family studies, 24(5), pp.1213-1221.
Castells, M., 2013. Communication power. London, OUP Oxford.
Chai, C.S., Koh, J.H.L., Tsai, C.C. and Tan, L.L.W., 2011. Modeling primary school pre-service teachers’ Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) for meaningful learning with information and communication technology (ICT). Computers & Education, 57(1), pp.1184-1193.
Chiang, H.M., 2008. Expressive communication of children with autism: the use of challenging behaviour. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 52(11), pp.966-972.
Cirrin, F.M., Schooling, T.L., Nelson, N.W., Diehl, S.F., Flynn, P.F., Staskowski, M., Torrey, T.Z. and Adamczyk, D.F., 2010. Evidence-based systematic review: Effects of different service delivery models on communication outcomes for elementary school–age children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 41(3), pp.233-264.
Coombs, W.T. and Holladay, S.J. eds., 2011. The handbook of crisis communication (Vol. 22). New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons.
Fiske, J., 2010. Introduction to communication studies. London, Routledge.
Greenhow, C. and Robelia, B., 2009. Old communication, new literacies: Social network sites as social learning resources. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 14(4), pp.1130-1161.
Grunig, J.E., 2013. Excellence in public relations and communication management. London, Routledge.
Hakvoort, B., de Bree, E., van der Leij, A., Maassen, B., van Setten, E., Maurits, N. and van Zuijen, T.L., 2016. The Role of Categorical Speech Perception and Phonological Processing in Familial Risk Children With and Without Dyslexia. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 59(6), pp.1448-1460.
Hillaker, B.D., Brophy‐Herb, H.E., Villarruel, F.A. and Haas, B.E., 2008. The contributions of parenting to social competencies and positive values in middle school youth: Positive family communication, maintaining standards, and supportive family relationships. Family Relations, 57(5), pp.591-601.
Holm, O., 2006. Integrated marketing communication: from tactics to strategy. Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 11(1), pp.23-33.
Hyde, M. and Punch, R., 2011. The modes of communication used by children with cochlear implants and role of sign in their lives. American Annals of the Deaf, 155(5), pp.535-549.
Jensen, K. B., Craig, R. T., Pooley, J., & Rothenbuhler, E. W. 2016. The international encyclopedia of communication theory and philosophy. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell.
Jeynes, W.H., 2007. The relationship between parental involvement and urban secondary school student academic achievement: A meta-analysis. Urban education, 42(1), pp.82-110.
Koegel, R.L. and Kern Koegel, L., 2006. Pivotal Response Treatments for Autism: Communication, Social, and Academic Development. Brookes Publishing Company, Baltimore.
Konijn, E.A., Utz, S., Tanis, M. and Barnes, S.B. eds., 2008. Mediated interpersonal communication. London, Routledge.
Le Run, Jean-Louis, Muriel Eglin, and Hélène Gane. “Children’s Speech.” Enfances & Psy 3 (2007): 6-9.
Lindblom, A., 2017. Stepping out of the shadows of colonialism to the beat of the drum.: The meaning of music for five First Nations children with autism in British Columbia, Canada (Doctoral dissertation, Grano Oy).
Lindlof, T.R. and Taylor, B.C., 2010. Qualitative communication research methods. London, Sage.
Locker, K.O. and Kienzler, D.S., 2013. Business and administrative communication. London, McGraw-Hill.
Louis, T.A. and Zeger, S.L., 2009. Effective communication of standard errors and confidence intervals. Biostatistics, 10(1), pp.1-2.
Lunenburg, F.C., 2010. Communication: The process, barriers, and improving effectiveness. Schooling, 1(1), pp.1-11.
Marzano, R.J., Waters, T. and McNulty, B.A., 2005. School leadership that works: From research to results. ASCD.
McCann, J., Peppé, S., Gibbon, F.E., O’Hare, A. and Rutherford, M., 2007. Prosody and its relationship to language in school‐aged children with high‐functioning autism. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 42(6), pp.682-702.
McLeod, S. and McKinnon, D.H., 2007. Prevalence of communication disorders compared with other learning needs in 14 500 primary and secondary school students. International journal of language & communication disorders, 42(sup1), pp.37-59.
McLeod, S. and Threats, T.T., 2008. The ICF-CY and children with communication disabilities. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 10(1-2), pp.92-109.
McQuail, D., Golding, P. and De Bens, E. eds., 2005. Communication theory and research. London, Sage.
Meir, N. and Armon-Lotem, S., 2017. Delay or Deviance: Old Question–New Evidence from Bilingual Children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI).
Nemzoff, R. E. (2008). Don’t bite your tongue: how to foster rewarding relationships with your adult children. New York, Palgrave Macmillan.
Nishino, T. and Watanabe, M., 2008. Communication‐oriented policies versus classroom realities in Japan. Tesol Quarterly, 42(1), pp.133-138.
Noordenbos, M.W. and Serniclaes, W., 2015. The categorical perception deficit in dyslexia: A meta-analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 19(5), pp.340-359.
Noordenbos, M.W., Segers, E., Serniclaes, W., Mitterer, H. and Verhoeven, L., 2012. Neural evidence of allophonic perception in children at risk for dyslexia. Neuropsychologia, 50(8), pp.2010-2017.
Olusanya, B.O., Ruben, R.J. and Parving, A., 2006. Reducing the burden of communication disorders in the developing world: an opportunity for the millennium development project. Jama, 296(4), pp.441-444.
Papathanasiou, I., Coppens, P. and Potagas, C., 2016. Aphasia and related neurogenic communication disorders. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
Paretti, M.C., 2008. Teaching communication in capstone design: The role of the instructor in situated learning. Journal of Engineering Education, 97(4), p.491.
Park, H., 2008. The varied educational effects of parent-child communication: A comparative study of fourteen countries. Comparative Education Review, 52(2), pp.219-243.
Peñas, C.S. and Willett, P., 2006. Brief communication: Gender differences in publication and citation counts in librarianship and information science research. Journal of Information Science, 32(5), pp.480-485.
Perkins, M. and Pfaffman, J., 2006. Using a course management system to improve classroom communication. The Science Teacher, 73(7), p.33.
Plester, B. and Wood, C., 2009. Exploring relationships between traditional and new media literacies: British preteen texters at school. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 14(4), pp.1108-1129.
Rider, E.A., Hinrichs, M.M. and Lown, B.A., 2006. A model for communication skills assessment across the undergraduate curriculum. Medical Teacher, 28(5), pp.e127-e134.
Samuelsson, U., 2014. Digital (o) jämlikhet? IKT-användning i skolan och elevers tekniska kapital (Doctoral dissertation, School of Education and Communication).
Sato, H. and Bradley, J.S., 2008. Evaluation of acoustical conditions for speech communication in working elementary school classrooms. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 123(4), pp.2064-2077.
Schmeltz, L., 2012. Consumer-oriented CSR communication: focusing on ability or morality? Corporate Communications: An International Journal, 17(1), pp.29-49.
Selwyn, N., Potter, J. and Cranmer, S., 2009. Primary pupils’ use of information and communication technologies at school and home. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(5), pp.919-932.
Sergy, L. (2017). The handy communication answer book. Canton Detroit, Visible Ink Press
Serniclaes, W. and Sprenger-Charolles, L., 2015. From behavior to brain. Routledge Handbook of Communication Disorders, p.34.
Shayne, P.A., 2008. Home-school communication with parents of middle school students: A study on the effects of technology. Saint Louis University.
Sirvani, H., 2007. The effect of teacher communication with parents on students’ mathematics achievement. American Secondary Education, pp.31-46.
Snowling, M.J. and Melby-Lervåg, M., 2016. Oral language deficits in familial dyslexia: A meta-analysis and review.
Stephens, L., Spalding, K., Aslam, H., Scott, H., Ruddick, S., Young, N.L. and McKeever, P., 2017. Inaccessible childhoods: evaluating accessibility in homes, schools and neighbourhoods with disabled children. Children’s Geographies, pp.1-17.
Stier, J., 2009. Internationalisation, intercultural communication and intercultural competence. Journal of intercultural communication, (11), pp. 1-12.
Svärdemo Åberg, E. and Insulander, E., 2017. Challenges in working with pedagogical quality in preschools–a meta-interpretation synthesis of empirical studies. Early Child Development and Care, pp.1-11.
Valkenburg, P.M. and Peter, J., 2007. Online communication and adolescent well‐being: Testing the stimulation versus the displacement hypothesis. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 12(4), pp.1169-1182.
Vanderstraeten, R. and Biesta, G., 2006. How is education possible? Pragmatism, communication and the social organisation of education. British Journal of Educational Studies, 54(2), pp.160-174.
Zillmann, D. and Bryant, J., 2013. Selective exposure to communication. London, Routledge.
Appendix
Observations
I decided to observe Peter as he is child with Autistic syndrome aged 4 years and three months. My aim was to see his communication with girls and boys in outdoor and indoor play. The aim was to observe how he communicates in different cases and situations.
The first observation is concentrated on body language communication so please analyse, evaluate and link to the relevant theory in children communication in EARLY YEARS.
Also, the second one is about speech communication and has to be analysed, evaluated and linked to the relevant theory in children communication in EARLY YEARS.
Two aspects of observations are; body language and speech language. First observation is in outdoor environment and second one in indoor and also analyse how environment can make influence on communication of children in EARLY YEARS.
Peter is the same boy in both observations, there are two photos of the setting and the daily routine.
BOY AND GIRL ASPECTS OUTDOOR ACTIVITY
Observation 1
On the playground of school were two children different gender at the same age. My position and role did not influence as they did not see me. I kept distance but still enough to see what they do and how they communicate, express feeling, change and act.
Peter with autistic syndrome was running a small car and sitting on chair. He showed happily the car but not specified to whom he showed that and changed sitting position and sat on his knees. It was obvious that he wanted to show it to Tamara who was playing with plastic cups and sand around a table where the boy was running the car.
Girl responded with the announcement that she has a bucket with Hello Kitty design.
Tamara continued to have a conversation about what she has at home. Tamara told him, while they were standing at front of table, that she has two buckets and one big car at home. The frustration of him was obvious due to her possession of the big car at home. He expressed that frustration using strong body postures with defending body position, crossed arms and looking down. So, Peter replied that he has three cars. Tamara got his frustration. She said loudly and changing postures looking up proudly and said:” I am a girl and car is of my brother “. Peter did not give much attention how Tamara behaved as he started to run a car over the table and sand, but suggested to play together. Peter confidently approached to her and without permission put his car in the bucket. He wanted to play game to buried bucket with car in sand and ask practitioner to find it but he just quickly said that to her. Girl liked idea as she jumped and gave a smile, but said using concern attitude and high voice that car is too big for bucket and there is no sand in bucket. Peter figured out that Tamara did not understand well. Peter’s body was steady for couple of seconds and then he energised and frustrated took car showed her by hand what to do. He said: We can put my car into bucket and buried in sand with bucket”. So, he grabbed Tamara’s bucket and they tried to fit it in but without any results.
During the process of putting the car in bucket, they collaborated well as Tamara was holding the bucket while Peter was trying to put it in. After a minute, they gave up as Peter took car and started to run it again on table without any words. Girl figured out his attention to play on his own and she went to another side of sand area without compromise. She told him on loud and watching him with smile little bit shy, that she has bigger bucket. But without result as Peter ignored her willing and kept the same game. Hers energy suddenly went up as she started to jump around table and singing some song. Peter also started to jump around sand area and they continued jumping for approximately one minute gesticulated that their game is not related to each other as she was singing while boy singing different song. Peter was keeping the car in hand but jumped behind her and followed her but with distance and keeping eyes on car. Tamara saw and heard him and decided to run to one of the girl at opposite corner of playground who was playing with dolls. He showed his little disappoint by watching her and was in doubt to go or not and stopped singing and jumping, but decided to continue game with the car on table and sand.
PRATICIONER SITTNG AT THE TABLE WITH PRESENCE OF TWO BOYS: Observation 2
Boys were drawing homes on two separate papers at the same table next to each other and I was sitting watching what they are doing.
They started to draw before practitioner coming, but did not show much attention as did not put heads up when I approached and sit.
Conversation between them started as Steve stopped to draw and asked with enthusiasm and expression for conversation another boy Peter with autistic syndrome. He asked: “which colour of home would you like to have”. His friends Peter replied quietly and not so understandable and without watching him. Peter said purple. Steve was confused as he again stopped to draw and said: “this colour not exist on house “. Steve was very confident about his announcement as he said with calm voice and strong statement. Peter accepted his expression as he replied fast with high voice watching the paper;” white colour”.
Steve showed attention to asked next question, but Peter wanted to hear Steve’s answer on the same question so quickly asked him and said confident. Steve answered; “white colour” the same as Steve. Steve asked practitioner the same question. Practitioner replied yellow to see their reaction. They did not show some specific react they just started to ask each other which colour of car they want to have. Asking process was fast without listening each other. Is HHh Their answers and questions were fast and energised followed by applause. Steve took from table different colours of pencils and started to ask which colour are they. Steve for each pencil firstly asked Peter and then practitioner. He asked us for three different pencil. Steve asked Peter with excitement and brave postures while he was full of energy as he was explosively taking.
Peter was little bit out of comfort zone as he replied with brakes for couple of seconds and changing body positions and putting arm on forehead but answers were correct. When practitioner answered on the same questions with the same correct answers as Peter, Steve was happy about his answer and said strongly: “Great Peter you answered all correctly.” So, it was obviously that he used practitioners as confirmation for Peter’s answers. Peter suggested whispering on his ear; “let’s make big house and put paper on it to be white house”. Steve started to shout and jump; “Yes, Yes! “but he was confused why Peter is whispering. Steve asked Peter what is the reason for that. Peter did not give an answer just pretending that he did not hear so Steve gave up to find answer. In meanwhile third boy arrived whose name is Michael and he was observing what they were doing for 5 seconds. Peter showed that he was not welcome as he turned back to him make angry face putting borrows down and covered house by body. Michael without disappointment went to another side of classroom with energy as he was running and singing some song.
Daily routine.
There are 15 children in a classroom.
DAILY ROUTINE (all times are flexible).
8.45 – WELCOMING TIME/GREETING TIME – Welcome parents/carers and children into the nursery to start their day.
9.10 – PHONICS TIME – This is part of the daily routine when all the children revise phonics and complete the tasks.
9.45 – PLANNING TIME – The children make choices and decisions about where they would like to work in the nursery and how they are going to do it, these ideas/plans are encouraged and supported by the nursery officers.
9.50 – WORK TIME – The children are encouraged to do whatever activities they have planned and at this time are free to work in all areas of the nursery, exploring materials, learning new skills and trying out their ideas. This is all achieved through well-planned play.
10.35 – TIDY UP TIME – The children tidy away materials they have been working with. This is a valuable learning experience for children, it develops their self-help skills and a sense of responsibility for their environment as well as encouraging them to co-operate with and help others.
10.45 – SNACK AND RECALL TIME – The children review what they have been doing by rejoining their own group of children and staff members with whom they planned and telling them about their work time activities. This helps to develop children’s communication and language and literacy skills.
11.00 – SMALL GROUP TIME – This is part of the daily routine which includes activities that have been planned for the children by nursery officers. The children will work in groups with carefully selected materials which will help them to develop a learning key experience towards the Early Learning Goals.
11.20– OUTSIDE PLAY – This is a time when all the children go outside and explore and investigate the outdoor learning environment, developing their skills of knowledge and understanding of the world. It also helps to develop the children’s physical skills.
12.00 – LUNCH TIME
1.00 – OUTSIDE PLAY – This is a time when all the children go outside and explore and investigate the outdoor learning environment, developing their skills of knowledge and understanding of the world. It also helps to develop the children’s physical skills.
2.00 – CIRCLE TIME – This is part of the daily routine when all the children and staff meet together to do action rhymes, sing songs, exchange news and have stories.
2.25 – PLANNING TIME – The children make choices and decisions about where they would like to work in the nursery and how they are going to do it, these ideas/plans are encouraged and supported by the nursery officers.
2.30 – WORK TIME – The children are encouraged to do whatever activities they have planned and at this time are free to work in all areas of the nursery, exploring materials, learning new skills and trying out their ideas. This is all achieved through well-planned play.
3.15 – TIDY UP TIME – The children tidy away materials they have been working with. This is a valuable learning experience for children, it develops their self-help skills and a sense of responsibility for their environment as well as encouraging them to co-operate with and help others.
3.25 – SNACK AND RECALL TIME – The children review what they have been doing by rejoining their own group of children and staff members with whom they planned and telling them about their work time activities. This helps to develop children’s communication and language and literacy skills.
3.40 – SMALL GROUP TIME – This is part of the daily routine which includes activities that have been planned for the children by nursery officers. The children will work in groups with carefully selected materials which will help them to develop a learning key experience towards the Early Learning Goals.
3.45 – OUTSIDE PLAY – This is a time when all the children go outside and explore and investigate the outdoor learning environment, developing their skills of knowledge and understanding of the world. It also helps to develop the children’s physical skills.
4.00 – HOME TIME – Welcome parents back into nursery to share and talk about their child’s day.
Description of the setting
Indoor
Outdoor
